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EDUCATION AMONG 
THE JEWS 



FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE END 
OF THE TALMUDIC PERIOD, SOD A. D. 



PAUL E. KRETZMANN, Ph.D. 




BOSTON: RICHARD G. BADGER 

xrOKONTO: THE COPP CLARK CO., LIMITED 



Copyright, 1916, by Paul E. Kretzmann 



All Rights Reserved 



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The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A. 




APR 20 1916 

;)CI.A427779 



INTRODUCTION 

In publishing this little booklet, the author is 
very well aware that he is placing himself in the 
most unfavorable light and courting the most ad- 
verse and abject criticism of so-called scientific schol- 
arship of the Bible. But he freely acknowledges 
and proudly confesses his absolute rejection of all 
scientific criticism of the Bible outside of textual re- 
search and stands squarely for the infallibility of 
Holy Scriptures. The Christ Whose words even 
the most rabid critics admit to be historically true: 
"The scripture cannot be broken," John 10,35. "Till 
heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in 
no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled," 
Matth. 5,18., was either what He claimed to be, 
the eternal Son of God, Who gladly permitted the 
attribute of Omniscience to be ascribed to Him, and 
Who in these words is a frank exponent of the in- 
fallibility of Holy Scriptures, or He was the most 
despicable hypocrite and cheat the world has ever 
known. And I confess that I believe it far better 
to stand with Him foursquare against all criticism 
of His eternal word, which is the revelation of His 
divine Essence, than to stand on the uncertain 
ground of modern Biblical criticism and degenerate 
into a vapid spouter of moral platitudes. Much bet- 
ter by far to accept the inspired Scriptural account 
of the creation of the world and of the history of 



the Jewish people word for word which has stood 
the test of the ages and endured the vain mutterings 
of foolish criticism both here and abroad than to ac- 
cept the inane theory of a so-called cosmic evolu- 
tion. Which is the more reasonable and more con- 
formable with common sense: the plain, unadorned 
Scriptural account that bears on its face the stamp of 
veracity, or the bolstered-up bombast of the forfend- 
ers of evolutionistic doctrines? The author's stand 
will not be misconstrued by people that have made 
a study of both sides of the question. In any ques- 
tion pertaining to this world's wisdom I believe in 
research and criticism to the full extent, but far be 
it from me to profane the Holy Book of God with 
sacrilegious hands. So much for the spirit in which 
the author has used the Bible as source material. 

So far as the subject matter is concerned, the 
word education is here used in its widest sense, in- 
cluding the entire bringing-up of the children, at 
home as well as in the school. Only in this way 
may justice be done to the people whose educational 
history is here briefly outlined. 

The form may seem clumsy to the casual reader, 
but it will certainly aid in reference work, since the 
periods treated are those of Hasting's Bible Dic- 
tionary. 

The author freely acknowledges his indebtedness 
to the Rev. Prof. W. H. T. Dau, of St. Louis, Mo., 
for looking over the manuscript. 

St. Paul, Minn., June, 1915. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I THE NATIVE PERIOD 9 

From the Earliest Times to the Division 
of the Kingdom, 953, B. C. 
a. Before the Flood. 
h. The Patriarchal Period. 

c. The Time of the Judges. 

d. The Time of David and Solomon. 
Education During the Native Period. 

II THE PROPHETIC PERIOD, 953- 

586-B. C 30 

Historical Survey. 

Education During the Prophetic Period. 

Ill THE EXILIC PERIOD, 586-536-B. C. 42 
From the Taking of the Last Band of 
Jews into Babylonia to the Return 
of the First Exiles. 
Historical Survey. 
Education during the Exilic Period. 

IV THE PERSIAN PERIOD, 538-332- 

B. C 47 

Brief Historical Survey. 

Education During the Persian Period. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

V THE HELLENIC PERIOD, 332-165- 

B. C 53 

From the Conquest of Judea by Alexander 
the Great to the Defeat of the Syrians 
by Judas Maccabeus. 
Historical Survey. 

VI THE MACCABEAN PERIOD, 165- 

63-B. C 61 

From the Defeat of the Syrians by Judas 
Maccabeus to the Conquest of Jeru- 
salem by Pompey. 
Historical Summary. 
Education during the Maccabean Period. 

VII THE ROMAN PERIOD, 63-B. C.-70 

A. D 64 

Historical Summary. 
The Talntudic Period. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 98 



Education Among the Jews 
I 

THE NATIVE PERIOD 

From the Earliest Times to the division of 
THE Kingdom, 953 B. C. 

(a) Before the Flood 

THE history of the Jewish people, if we 
may speak of them as such at this time 
of the world, is told briefly in the first 
six chapters of Genesis. In this age of 
the infancy of the world, there is no record of any 
special transmittance of knowledge, of any system of 
education. That the history of the first people was 
handed down, by tradition, from father to son, is, 
of course, very evident from the preserved narra- 
tive. And that the moral precepts and the Gospel 
news of salvation were transmitted in much the 
same manner, appears from Gen. 4,26: "Men began 
to proclaim the name of the Lord." That the tradi- 
tions were discussed quite freely and were made a 
basis of fervent hope, is shown in the case of Eve, 

9 



lo EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

Gen. 4,1 ; "I have gained (by creative bearing) a 
man — the Lord," and that of Lamech, who said, 
after the birth of Noah: "This same shall comfort 
us concerning our work and toil of our hands, be- 
cause of the ground which the Lord hath cursed," 
Gen. 5, 29. Both of these expressions have the 
same motive, the hope in the coming Messiah, the 
seed of the woman. Whether the various kinds of 
handicraft and arts, which had their inception in 
these early days, such as the music of Jubal and the 
brass-and ironwork of Tubalcain, were transmitted 
by any method but that of teaching the craft to the 
sons, is not apparent, although Jubal is called the 
father of all such as handle the harp and organ. Gen. 
4, 21. Whether Lamech, on account of his poetical 
couplets, Gen. 4, 23, 24, is to be regarded as the 
father of poetry, is a question which has often been 
discussed. Owing to the meagre source material, 
definite conclusions can hardly be drawn. 

(b) The Patriarchal Period 

After the flood and the subsequent confusion of 
tongues, the real history of the Jewish people opens 
with the journey of Abram, afterwards Abraham, 
from Mesopotamia to the Land of Promise. His 
sojourn there was marked by various incidents, 
chief of which was the birth of Isaac. The blessing 



THE NATIVE PERIOD n 

of Abraham was transmitted by Isaac to Jacob, the 
second son of Rebecca, who thereupon had to flee to 
Mesopotamia. The sons of Jacob became the fore- 
fathers of the twelve tribes of Israel. Joseph, one 
of these sons, became the savior of his brothers dur- 
ing the great famine and obtained for them and 
their children a place of refuge in the land of Gosh- 
en. For several centuries the children of Israel 
lived in Egypt, until, with a change in the reigning 
dynasty, there came a crisis in the affairs of the peo- 
ple. Moses became the leader of his brethren, led 
them out of the house of bondage and to the very 
borders of Palestine. 

(c) The Thne of the Judges 

Joshua took the place of Moses at the boundary of 
the new country. Under his leadership the tribes 
which inhabited the land were subjugated and the 
country divided among the twelve tribes of Israel, 
Judah and Benjamin occupying the southern part, 
Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh principally the land 
east of the Jordan, and Asher, Dan, Ephraim, Is- 
sachar, Naphtali, Simeon, and Zebulun, the north- 
ern and eastern part. The form of government at 
this time was theocratic, the people being guided 
entirely by the laws and ordinances which Moses had 
delivered to them. Although the tribes had received 



12 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

the command to annihilate the heathen nations, some 
of these had been spared. And these were the very 
ones that made constant inroads upon the country, 
harassing the inhabitants and plundering and rob- 
bing their property. At such times Judges (Saviors) 
were called to lead the people against the enemy. 
This entire period was a time of unrest, of an at- 
tempt to accommodate themselves to new conditions 
The unfortunate ones that had been held in the serf- 
dom of Egypt, had all died in the wilderness; their 
children occupied the Land of Promise, they were 
obliged to become accustomed both to liberty and to 
self-government, or rather self-restraint. Under such 
conditions a well-ordered community can hardly be 
conceived of. 

(d) The Time of David and Solomon 

With the growing prosperity of the people and the 
feeling of national power there came the demand 
for a king, as all the heathen about them had. Sam- 
uel, who at that time was the spiritual leader of the 
people, was very angry with them for the request 
they voiced. But his objections were overruled and 
Saul was chosen by lot as the first king of the Jewish 
nation. The beginning of his reign was very success- 
ful, but after a few years he turned aside from the 
divine ways. This apostasy, together with the wars 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 13 

against the heathen nations and the persecutions of 
David, made the last years of his reign more of a 
curse than a blessing for Israel and hindered the de- 
velopment of the nation perceptibly. The reign of 
David, second king of Israel, opened rather unfav- 
orably v^^ith a revolt of a faction of Saul and w^ars 
against the Jebusites and other heathen nations. The 
successful termination of all these difficulties gave 
David a position of powder and gained for his people 
an era of prosperity and peace. Moreover, since 
David himself vi^as a poet and writer of the foremost 
rank, he very greatly favored the arts and sciences. 
This happy state of affairs continued and became 
even more pronounced during the reign of Solomon, 
the "wise" king. His accession marked the begin- 
ning of the first "golden era" of the Jewish people. 
This happy state was not to endure for a long time 
though. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, began his 
reign with a foolish decision. The result was that 
ten of the tribes seceded and formed a kingdom of 
their own, while only two, Judah and Benjamin, re- 
mained with Rehoboam. 

Education During the Native Period 

As stated above, the history of the Jewish people 
really begins with the coming of Abraham to the 
Promised Land. Abraham was therefore at all 



H EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

times looked upon as the father of the Jews, or He- 
brews, as they were called very early, perhaps in al- 
lusion to their coming across the river Jordan. And 
the very history of Abraham furnishes evidence for 
the early germs of education in the Jewish people. 
If Abraham had not been a prince of royal blood or 
a member of the nobility in his native country, Chal- 
dea, he at least had been a member of a prominent 
and wealthy family. He also associated on terms 
of equality with the king of Egypt, with Melchize- 
dek, the king of Salem, and with Abimelech, the 
king of Gerar. He was therefore at different times 
of his life in close contact with the Chaldean, with 
the Egyptian, and with the Hittite learning. Now 
the civilization of Babylonia (Mesopotamia and 
Chaldea) was at that time very far advanced. Read- 
ing and writing were general attainments throughout 
the country. According to Prof. Sayce, schools and 
libraries were flourishing in Babylonia long before 
Abraham was born, and the arts and sciences were 
fostered. The Babylonia of the age of Abraham 
was a more highly educated country than the Eng- 
land of George HI. The same was true of Egypt. 
The country was full of schools and libraries, of 
teachers and pupils, of poets and prose writers, and 
of literary works which they had composed. The 
man of business, the wealthier fellaheen, even to 
overseers of the workmen, were acquainted with 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 15 

the hieroglyphic system of writing and the hieratic or 
cursive hand which had developed out of it. No one 
could live in Egypt without coming under the spell 
of its literary culture. As to the Hittites finally, 
whose very existence was denied a few years ago, re- 
cent explorations and excavations have proved defi- 
nitely that this people also possessed a high degree 
of learning and exerted a more or less pronounced 
influence on some of the nations with whom they 
came in contact. The possibility of Abraham's hav- 
ing remained uninfluenced by the culture with which 
he was in almost continual contact, can hardly be 
conceived of. Josephus even goes so far as to say: 
"He (Abraham) communicated to them (the Egyp- 
tians) arithmetic and delivered to them the science 
of astronomy; for, before Abram came into Egj^pt, 
they were unacquainted with those parts of learning" 
(Antiq. of the Jews, Book I, Ch. VIII, 2). The 
Jewish people then present the somewhat unique ex- 
ample of having as their progenitor a wealthy, influ- 
ential, and highly cultured man, whose influence 
along educational lines was bound to be most marked. 
The following patriarchs, Isaac and Jacob, occu- 
pied a position which was hardly less prominent. 
Neither were their relations with the heathen na- 
tions less significant or without permanent influence. 
And while it may readily be admitted that the no- 
madic life of the sons of Jacob as well as the sojourn 



1 6 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

in Egypt were not conducive to literary and artis- 
tic advancement, it must be remembered, on the oth- 
er hand, that both Joseph and Moses received, the 
former a part, the latter all of his training, at Helio- 
polis, the college city of Egypt. Of Moses espec- 
ially it was said that he was learned in all the wis- 
dom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and 
in deeds. Acts 7, 22. It is also hardly conceivable 
that a contact with the learning of Egypt, which 
lasted for several centuries, should not have left its 
impression on the young nation in its own country. 
During the centuries when the Jews were without a 
stable government, the efforts to establish and main- 
tain an educational system may indeed have been 
more or less desultory, but the strength of the hier- 
archical system as well as the principle of the theo- 
cracy, at least outwardly upheld, may be cited as an 
argument in favor of at least a partial educational 
system as well as one against general education. 
Jewish tradition has it that there were regular es- 
tablished schools as early as the time of Isaac, and 
that Jacob and Esau both attended the primary 
school. We have no way of either substantiating or 
disproving tradition on this score. Skeptics may dis- 
claim the very possibility of so great an achieve- 
ment at so early a date. But it will always be well 
to remember that an argument "e silentio" has very 
little in its favor, while the fact that the patriarchs 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 17 

had a household embracing several hundred souls 
and could very well enjoy the services of stewards, 
would surely not preclude the possibility of their em- 
ploying a teacher for their clan. And if so much 
may be said in favor of a well-developed educational 
s,vstem at so early a date, the assumption of at least 
a rudimentary stage in education at the time of the 
Judges can hardly be said to be too daring. The 
factors favoring a more thorough establishment of 
an educational system with the beginning of the 
Monarchial Period have been outlined above. Every- 
thing that is related of David and Solomon makes 
the probability of their having been the patrons of 
the arts and sciences more certain. The "golden era" 
was one of peace, not war. 

After this preliminary general survey we are now 
prepared to understand the specific instances of ed- 
ucational references in the historical books of the 
Jews pertaining to this time. 

The very high regard in which the Jews held 
children as gifts of God and their earnest and pray- 
erful longing for ofiFspring colored and influenced 
their whole life. Eve's joyous cry at the birth of 
Cain: "I have gotten a man from the Lord," Gen. 
4, I, is usually cited as an instance of the longing of 
the people of the old covenant for the promised 
Messiah. But aside from this evident interpretation 
there is an underlying thought which voices the sen- 



1 8 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

timent of the mothers of the old covenant. The verb 
kanah is used principally of supernatural, creative 
begetting, so that Eve's thought also included : The 
Lord has graciously granted to me, through special 
creative power, a son. It is said of Jacob Gen. 37, 3 : 
"Nou^ Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, 
because he was the son of his old age." The fervent 
longing and earnest supplication of Hannah, the 
wife of Elkanah, is voiced in the prayer i Sam. i, 
1 1 : "Give unto thine handmaid a manchild." So 
highly did Hannah, together with the other women 
of Israel, value the gift of children, that her barren- 
ness rested upon her as a curse of God. So sincere 
was her longing for a son that she promised in a vow 
that she would give back her son to the Lord, i. e. 
that she would have him trained for divine service 
from his infancy. And she fully redeemed her vow 
when she brought the young Samuel to the priest Eli 
at the tabernacle, when the boy was but three years 
old. Other instances illustrating the same love and 
longing for children are the examples of Sarah, Gen. 
16, I, 2, Rebeccah, Gen. 25, 21, Rachel, Gen. 30, 
I, Ruth, Ruth 4, 13, and Michal, 2 Sam. 6, 23. 

But not only in these specific instances is the high 
regard and the tender love of parents toward their 
children set forth, but also in passages of a general 
nature, thus proving conclusively that the Jews made 
this a basic principle in their national life. A poem 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 19 

of the time of Solomon contains the well-known 
lines: "Lo, children are an heritage of the Lord, 
and the fruit of the womb is his reward. As arrows 
in the hands of a mighty man, so are children of the 
youth. Happy is the man that has his quiver full 
of them!" Ps. 127, 3-5. And again: "Thy wife 
shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of thy house, 
thy children like olive plants round about thy table. 
Behold that thus shall be blessed the man that 
feareth the Lord. . . . Yea, thou shalt see 
thy children's children, and peace upon Israel!" Ps. 
128, 3, 4, 6. The same sentiment is voiced Prov. 
3, 12b, where a father is spoken of as delighting in 
his son. The verb razah used here means 'to love, 
to be well pleased with.' It is represented as a pater- 
nal trait of character, as a foregone conclusion that 
a parent love his son and take delight and pride in 
him. 

In thorough accordance with this position of the 
parents we find the attitude of the children toward 
their parents and toward all those in authority. 
When, after the incident at Shechem, Jacob re- 
proved his sons, they accepted the rebuke, thus recog- 
nizing their father's authority, Gen. 34, 30. The 
motive that prompted Joseph to bring the evil re- 
port of his brothers before the father, was doubtless 
principally one of loyalty to authority. Gen. 37, 2. 
When all the sons and daughters rose up to com- 



20 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

fort Jacob, there was as much recognition of his po- 
sition as remorse for their evil deed in their action, 
Gen. 37, 30. When the Jews received the Law by 
the hands of Moses, they were not left in doubt as 
to the authority which God had given the parents. 
The commandment of the Decalogue reads: "Honor 
thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be 
long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth 
thee," Ex. 20, 12. This is emphasized Lev. 19, 3: 
"Ye shall fear every man his mother and his father," 
and repeated Deut. 5, 16: "Honor thy father and 
thy mother, as the Lord thy God hath commanded 
thee." In conformity with these commandments 
we read: "My son, keep thy father's commandments, 
and forsake not the law of thy mother: Bind them 
continually iipon thy heart, and tie them about thy 
neck. When thou goest it shall lead thee ; when thou 
sleepest, it shall keep thee, and when thou awakest, 
it shall talk with thee," Prov. 6, 20-22. In the 
same way: "Hearken unto thy father that begat 
thee, and despise not thy mother when she is old," 
Prov. 23, 22. That the authority of the parents 
was sovereign, is evident from Prov. 19, 26: "He 
that wasteth (shows lack of respect toward, is con- 
temptuous toward) his father and chaseth away his 
mother, is a son that causeth shame, and bringeth 
reproach." And again Prov. 28, 24: "Whoso rob- 
beth his father and his mother and saith: It is no 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 21 

transgression, the same is the companion of a de- 
troyer." 

These principles necessitated the maintenance of 
the strictest and most uncompromising discipline. 
The first step in discipline was earnest admonition, 
reprimand, and reproof. Prov. i, 8: "My son, 
hear the instruction (Hebr. musar, admonition) of 
thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother." 
Prov. 13, I : "A wise son heareth his father's instruc- 
tion ; but a scorner heareth not rebuke (German: 
Der Spoetter hoert nicht auf Verweise)." Prov. 
15, 5: "A fool despiseth his father's instruction; 
but he that regardeth reproof is prudent." Prov. 3, 
12: "Whom the Lord loveth He correcteth" {jakah, 
Greek paideno). Prov. 6, 23b: "Reproofs of in- 
struction are the way of life" (rebuking reprimands, 
Greek: kai clegchos kai paideia; French: les remon- 
strances de la discipline). 

If reprimands and remonstrances proved futile, 
the next step in discipline was corporal punishment , 
usually in the form of zvhipping. Prov. 13, 24: 
"He that spareth his rod hateth his son, but he that 
loveth him chasteneth him betimes." Such pun- 
ishing should, however, be done without carnal an- 
ger and in moderation. Prov. 19, 18: "Chasten thy 
son why there is hope, and let not thy soul spare for 
his crying" (Hebr.: but to kill him let not thy soul 
be driven). Prov. 22, 15: "Foolishness is bound in 



22 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

the heart of a child, but the rod of correction shall 
drive it far from him." Prov. 23, 13, 14: "With- 
hold not correction from the child : for if thou beat- 
est him with a rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt 
beat him with a rod and shalt deliver his soul from 
hell." Prov. 29, 15, 17: "The rod and reproof 
give wisdom, but a child left to himself bringeth his 
mother to shame. Correct (punish) thy son, and 
he shall give thee rest, yea, he shall give delight unto 
thy soul." It was an exceedingly wise provision that 
punishment of this kind was to be tempered with 
wisdom and moderation, having in mind always the 
end to be gained, the welfare of the child and of 
the whole community, rather than a base desire for 
vengeance or the venting of a spite. 

When even the harsher methods failed, then the 
final step was expulsion and exile, and even death. 
The latter punishment, however, was in the hands of 
the community or government, the parents them- 
selves having no jurisdiction over life and death. In 
the case of the unruly Ishmael in the house of 
Abraham, Sarah's request was brief and to the point: 
"Cast out this bondwoman and her son, for the son 
of this bondwoman shall not be heir with my son," 
Gen. 21, 10. Deut. 27, 16: "Cursed be he that set- 
teth light by his father or mother," Prov. 20, 20: 
"Whoso curseth his father or his mother, his lamp 
shall be put out in obscure darkness." It is not evi- 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 23 

dent from the text whether a general curse is 'here 
pronounced, or whether the specific punishment is 
exile or death. That the final, most severe punish- 
ment was by no means beyond the pale of possibility, 
appears from several passages, for which no claim of 
ambiguity may be advanced, Prov. 30, 17: "The 
eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey 
his mother, the ravens of the valley shall put it out, 
and the young eagles shall eat it." The instances, 
in which capital punishment was prescribed by God, 
are carefully enumerated. Ex. 21, 15, 17 : "He that 
smiteth his father or his mother, shall be surely put 
to death. He that curseth his father or his mother, 
shall surely be put to death." Lev. 20, 9: "For every 
one that curseth his father or his mother, shall be 
surely put to death ; he hath cursed his father or his 
mother: his blood shall be upon him." In Deut. 21, 
18-21, the entire mode of procedure in a case of this 
kind is outlined. A stubborn and rebellious son was 
to be brought to the elders of the city in the gate, 
where the formal accusation and condemnation 
should be made, "and all the men of his city shall 
stone him with stones, that he die: so shalt thou 
put evil away from among you, and all Israel shall 
hear, and fear." 

With such strict discipline it was inevitable that 
good results were obtained, at least in outward drill, 
in training by rote. Instruction in the fundamentals 



24 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

of the Law or moral training was the basis of edu- 
cation. Prov. I, 1-6 speaks in general of instruc- 
tion in wisdom, justice, judgment, and equity. So 
far as moral efficiency and breadth of view is con- 
cerned, this would make an excellent basis for Mil- 
ton's requirement. Prov. 2, lO, ii : "When wisdom 
entereth into thine heart, and knowledge is pleasant 
unto thy soul ; discretion shall preserve thee, under- 
standing shall keep thee." Prov. 4, 5: "Get wisdom, 
get understanding, forget it not." Prov. 16, 16: 
"How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! 
and to get understanding rather to be chosen than 
silver." These texts are so general that it hardly 
seems possible to limit them to a knowledge of the 
Law alone, although indeed Ps. iii, 10, says: "The 
fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, a 
good understanding have all they that do his com- 
mandments." And Job 28, 28: "Unto man he 
said : Behold the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, 
and to depart from evil is understanding." Religious 
teaching and moral training were the basis, the verj 
foundation of education among the Jews in this 
period. The precepts of the books of this period have 
set the standard of morality for the whole world. 
The virtues that were emphasized and lauded in 
these books have received the approval of the ages, 
and the vices there condemned are considered so uni- 
versally to this day. The praise of an ideal house- 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 25 

wife Prov. 31, 10-31 is called the golden ABC of 
the wedded woman and regarded as the best presen- 
tation of so comprehensive a subject that has ever 
appeared. 

But while the ancient Jews thus made religious 
training the basic principle of their education, they 
did not neglect secular teaching. The art of writ- 
ing and therefore also of reading was undoubtedly 
known to Abraham, as shown above, and there are 
evidences throughout this period that it was a very 
general accomplishment. Joseph in Egypt (Gen, 
41, 49) surely made use of it. Moses wrote the 
words of the Law at the command of God, Ex. 17, 
14. Ex. 24, 4. Deut. 31, 9, 22. So general was 
this attainment that the command was given to all 
Israelites: "Thou shalt write them (the words of 
the Law) upon the door-posts of thy house, and 
upon thy gates," Deut. 11, 20. Moses also com- 
manded the people to set up great stones, when they 
had come into the Promised Land, "and thou shalt 
write upon them all the words of this law, when 
thou art passed over," Deut. 27, 2, 3. The passage 
Joshua 4 does not in any way conflict with this state- 
ment, because the stones spoken of there were merely 
monuments. The men whom Joshua sent out de- 
scribed the land in a book. Josh. 18, 9. Joshua him- 
self wrote. Josh. 24, 26. Samuel wrote, i Sam. 10, 
25. The Book of Jasher was written, 2 Sam. i, 18. 



26 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

David wrote a letter, 2 Sam. 11, 14-16. That there 
were special scribes or secretaries at that time (2 
Sam. 8, 17) does not signify any more than it does at 
the present time. See also Judges 8, 14. 

Where writing and reading were such general ac- 
complishments it is hardly conceivable that other 
branches of learning should have been neglected en- 
tirely. From the exactness of descriptions in Exodus, 
Deuteronomy, and Joshua, there must have been 
some knowledge of geography during this period. 
There was also at least some knowledge of arithme- 
tic, if not of geometry, most likely also of astronomy 
(Job), and of music (i Chron. 16, 42. i Chron. 

25). 

The training in this period, at least in the earlier 
part, so far as is apparent from Biblical sources, was 
in the hands of the parents, although it is by no 
means improbable that there were special teachers or 
tutors at a very early time. Perhaps it was held 
merely that the parents had to assume all responsi- 
bility for the training of their children. Gen. 18, 19, 
it is said of Abraham: "I know he will command 
his children and his household after him, and they 
shall keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and 
judgment." Deut. 6, 6, 7 : "And these words which 
I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart: 
and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy chil- 
dren" (drill thy children in them). Deut. 11, 18- 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 27 

20: "Therefore shall ye lay up these my words 
in your heart and in your soul . . . and 
ye shall teach them your children, speaking of 
them when thou sittest in thine house, and 
when thou walkest by the way, when thou 
liest down, and when thou risest up." Ex. 10, 
2: "That thou mayest tell in the ears of thy son, 
and of thy son's son, what things I have wrought in 
Egypt." Ps. 71, 18: "O God forsake me not, until 
I have shewed thy strength unto this generation, 
and thy power to every one that is to come." Ps. 78, 
3, 4. "I will utter dark sayings of old which we 
have heard and known, and our fathers have told us. 
We will not hide them from their children, shewing 
to the generations to come the praises of the Lord 
and his strength. Vs. 6. That the generations to 
come might know them, even the children which 
should be born; who should arise and declare them 
to their children." Prov. 22, 6: "Train up a child 
in the way he should go ; and when he is old, he will 
not depart from it." This passage has often been 
misconstrued, the contention being that the text 
speaks of unfolding or developing natural gifts and 
abilities. But an examination of the Hebrew text 
shows the verb chanak, which can be understood of 
initiatory rites only. Besides, the passage is evident- 
ly objective. The German translation: Wie man 
einen Knaben gewoehnt ; and the French : Instruis le 



28 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

jeune enfant a I'entree de sa voie; are truer to the 
original. 

Outside of the home, education was to some ex- 
tent in the hands of the priests. Samuel was edu- 
cated by Eli, the priest at Shiloh, i Sam. 2, 11, 21. 
The Jewish tradition that Samuel established pro- 
phet schools at Ramah and elsewhere, seems to be 
borne out by i Sam. 10, 10, and i Sam. 19, 19. So 
far as private teachers or tutors are concerned, Nath- 
an seems to have occupied that position in the house 
of David, 2 Sam. 12, 25. 

But there were also professional teachers, whether 
apart from the hierarchy or not, cannot be determ- 
ined definitely. They were known as 'teachers' or 
'men of wisdom.' Ps. 84, 7: "The teachers are 
blessed abundantly." Ps. 119, 99, 100: "I have more 
understanding than all my teachers." Ps. 141, 6: 
"When their judges (wise men) are overthrown in 
stony places." Prov. 5. 13: "Have not obeyed the 
voice of my teachers." Prov. 13, 20: "He that 
walketh with wise men shall be wise." 

There is no evidence pointing to the existence of 
special rooms or buildings for school purposes, al- 
though this idea would not be excluded. The in- 
struction that was not given at home or in the dwel- 
ling of the teacher, may well have been imparted in 
the conversational form, as indicated in some of the 
passages above, of which we have a striking example 



THE NATIVE PERIOD 29 

in the methods of Jesus at a later period. The 
school for musicians mentioned above was in Jeru- 
salem, since its purpose was to train singers and mu- 
sicians for chorus and orchestra work in connection 
with the liturgical part of the temple services. 



II 

THE PROPHETIC PERIOD, 953-586 B. C. 
Historical Survey 

WITH the division of the kingdom un- 
der Rehoboam there began a gradual 
disintegration of the nation. The 
northern kingdom of Israel, owing 
perhaps to a lack of vitality and stamina, was the 
first to sufifer. Its rulers were, for the most part, 
conscienceless. Immoral, selfish creatures, overbear- 
ing, cruel, and rapacious, so far as their own sub- 
jects were concerned, and fawning and hypocritical 
toward the mightier rulers of the surrounding coun- 
tries. Jeroboam, the leader of the secessionist forces, 
was the first king of Israel. He was followed. In 
turn, by Nadab, Baesa, Ela, Simri, and Amrl. Un- 
der Ahab the country suffered from a severe and 
prolonged drought. His Introduction of Phoenician 
worship was a prime factor In overthrowing tradi- 
tion and ancient usages. Even the schools of the 
prophets, which were by this time an established in- 
stitution, did not escape his tyrannical policy, i Kings 
18, 22. The country, torn by internal dissensions. 
30 



THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 31 

had no strength to combat an aggressive adversary. 
It was only by marshalling all his forces that Ahab 
succeeded in defeating the Syrian king, Ben-Hadad. 
There followed several weak rulers, Ahaziah and 
Jehoram. Jehu had a long, but not exceptionally 
successful reign. It is significant that the final ruin 
of the nation began at this time: "In those days the 
Lord began to cut Israel short," 2 Kings 10, 32. 
Jehoahaz and Jehoash had a rather colorless reign. 
Under Jeroboam II Israel once more, by a last ef- 
fort, regained a position of respect and power. He 
extended the boundaries of his kingdom to the Eu- 
phrates in the East, to Damascus in the North, to 
the Dead Sea in the South. His son, Zachariah, 
however, ruled only six months. His assassin Shal- 
lum was in turn slain by Menahem. It was only 
by the payment of high tribute that this ruler was 
able to maintain a semblance of a kingdom over 
against the Assyrians. His son, Pekahiah was mur- 
dered after a short reign by Pekah. After this ruler 
had, in turn, been removed by assassination, Hoshea, 
the murderer, became guilty of a last foolish move. 
He refused to pay tribute to the Assyrian king Shal- 
maneser, trying, at the same time, to win So, the 
king of Egypt, with presents. So the end came rath- 
er abruptly. Hoshea, together with the people of 
Israel, was led away into Assyrian captivity. And 
the result is stated thus: "Therefore the Lord re- 



32 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

moved them out of his sight: there was none left 
but the tribe of Judah only," 2 Kings 17, 18. 

The history of the kingdom of Judah is not quite 
so dark and cheerless, but is also nothing but a re- 
cital of gradual disintegration and final ruin. Even 
under Rehoboam, the kingdom became so weak that, 
for the first time, an enemy succeeded in taking the 
city of Jerusalem. That was Shishak, king of Egypt. 
He even dared to plunder the temple and the palace 
which Solomon had built. Under the reign of Abi- 
jah and Asa things began to look better. Some of 
the strongest enemies were conquered or gained for 
Judah, and when the reformation of the Church and 
the judiciary was completed under Jehoshaphat, an 
era of renewed prosperity began for the southc^n 
kingdom. This did not last very long, however. 
With Jehoram, a gradual decline set in, which was 
intensified under the following rulers: Ahaziah, the 
queen-regent Athaliah, Joash, and Amaziah. The 
accession of Uzziah ushered in a century of greater 
prosperity. He was very fortunate in war and took 
a great deal of interest in the welfare of his people. 
These favorable conditions continued under Jotham, 
were reversed very markedly under Ahaz, but were 
emphasized under Hezekiah, the last king of im- 
portance. He made every efFort to restore Judah to 
the glory of its "golden era." But it was the last 
flickering before the final extinction. The fate of 



THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 33 

the northern kingdom, which was settled during his 
reign, presaged the fate of Judah. The remaining 
kings Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, 
Jehoiachin, Zedekiah, were, almost to a man, either 
violently deposed or assassinated. In the year 605 
B. C. Nebuchadnezzar took the first captives to 
Babylon, and twenty years later the remaining Jews 
with the exception of a little band which fled to 
Egypt, taking the unwilling Jeremiah with them, 
were led away into the Babylonian captivity. 

Education during the Prophetic Period 

It is evident from this brief historical survey 
that the conditions in both kingdoms were decidedly 
unfavorable to education and the fostering of the 
arts and sciences in general. For under such condi- 
tions of uncertainty and internal strife, of turmoil, 
disruption, and disintegration, the highest develop- 
ment of a people in sciences and arts cannot be 
reached, or if it has been attained to before, it can- 
not be maintained, or, at least, its existence is an 
extremely precarious one. The country was torn 
by civil war, overrun by hostile forces, the very ex- 
istence of the nation was often threatened, and its 
final ruin but a question of time. 

But while there are evidences of retrogression in 
certain respects, while there were times when syste- 



34 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

matic education for the masses was out of the ques- 
tion, it is significant that the educational ideals of 
the people were not altered. We have essentially 
the same precepts, the same means, and the same 
aims as in the previous period. And whenever there 
was an interval of peace, the recovery of lost ground 
was little short of marvellous. 

So far as the attitude of parents toward their chil- 
dren is concerned, there is the same longing for off- 
spring, the same love of children, the same authority 
over the young, as in the early days of Jewish his- 
tory. The Shunammite at the time of Elisha had 
one supreme wish, that of becoming a mother to a 
son, 2 Kings 4, 16. And when her desire had been 
fulfilled and her boy afterward died, her great love 
for the child is shown in her every word and action, 
2 Kings 4, 28. As one of the greatest curses of 
God pronounced upon a disobedient people, is men- 
tioned "the miscarrying womb, and dry breasts," 
Hosea 9, 14. That the authority of parents over 
their children was in no wise curtailed, is evident 
from the passage Jer. 29, 6: "Take wives for your 
sons, and give your daughters to husbands." The 
example of Tobith is sufficient to show that this 
authority was unquestioned. That there were times, 
however, when the respect of the children toward 
their parents was forgotten, and the honor due to 
their station was not accorded them, appears from 



THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 35 

Micah 7, 6: "The son dishonoreth the father, the 
daughter riseth up against her mother, the daughter- 
in-law against her mother-in-law." But of course 
the very fact that such a complaint was voiced is 
sufficient evidence for the assumption that the posi- 
tion of the parents as the natural superiors of the 
children was rigidly upheld and guarded. 

This is evident also from the methods of disci- 
pline which were employed. The rigor of the prev- 
ious period had in no wise been mitigated. Is. 45, 10: 
"Woe unto him that saith unto his father, What 
begettest thou? or to the woman. What hast thou 
brought forth ?" This 'woe' of which the text speaks 
is undoubtedly the same punishment which is spoken 
of in the Law, and consisted in either expulsion or 
death. 

Upon the parents rested the responsibility for the 
education of the children, especially their moral and 
religious training. As the Law had been passed 
on from father to son throughout the generations, 
and had been preserved also through the agency of 
the prophets and priests and other teachers, so the 
prophecies should be preserved by tradition. "Tell 
ye your children of it, and let your children tell 
their children, and their children another genera- 
tion," Joel I, 3. The worship of Jahweh indeed 
often gave way to the worship of Baal, at least by a 
part of the people, and religious training in the 



36 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

specific Jewish religion was often virtually aband- 
oned, as in the days of Elijah, but occasional efforts 
at reformation, as those of Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, and 
Hezekiah, served to keep interest in the Jewish reli- 
gion awake. Whenever such eras were ushered in, 
there was a revival of old-time religious instruction. 
To this, no doubt, Joel had reference, when he 
writes: "Be glad then, ye children of Zion, and re- 
joice in the Lord your God, who giveth you teachers 
unto righteousness," Joel 2, 23. That the prophet 
schools were continued, at least in the early part of 
this period, is evident from several passages. "The 
sons of the prophets came forth to Elisha," 2 Kgs. 2, 
3, 5. "Fifty men of the sons of the prophets went 
and stood to view afar off," vs. 7, 15. "And Elisha 
came again to Gilgal : and there was a dearth in 
the land: and the sons of the prophets were sitting 
before him," 2 Kings 4, 38 ff. There were, accord- 
ing to the text, one hundred men at this school. 
"And the sons of the prophets said unto Elisha, Be- 
hold now, the place where we dwell with thee is 
too strait for us. Let us go, we pray thee, unto 
Jordan, and take thence every man a beam, and let 
us make a place there, where we may dwell," 2 Kings 
6, I ff. It appears from these passages that the pro- 
phet schools at this time were boarding schools, the 
buildings of which were erected by the pupils them- 
ps'lves, and who were supported, to a great extent, 



THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 37 

by voluntary contributions and loans. "There came a 
man from Baalshalisha, and brought the man of 
God bread of the first fruits, twenty loaves of barley, 
and full ears of corn in the husk thereof. And he 
said, Give unto the people that they may eat. And 
his servitor said, What? should I set this before an 
hundred men?" 2 Kings 4, 42, 43. It is not express- 
ly stated whether there was any instruction outside of 
the teaching of the Law, but from the entire history 
of the time it would surely not be too bold to con- 
clude that reading and writing were also taught. In 
fact, in carrying out the commands of the Torah, 
it devolved upon the leaders of the prophet schools to 
teach their pupils to read and to write. 

In many of the royal houses of this period we 
find private tutors, to whom the education of the 
children was entrusted. In the case of Ahab's chil- 
dren these men are called 'bringers-up of the chil- 
dren,' 2 Kings 10, I, 5. Jehoiada, the priest, was 
tutor and guardian of king Joash, 2 Chron. 24. Uz- 
ziah had Zechariah for a teacher at his court, 2 
Chron, 26, 5. It is very probable that the training 
which the royal children of the Jewish nation re- 
ceived was quite as far advanced as that of the 
princes in the surrounding countries. 

However, there was also instruction for the people 
in general, with specially trained teachers. Jehos- 
haphat "in the third year of his reign sent to his 



38 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

princess ... to teach in the cities of Judah. 
and with them he sent Levites . . . and 
priests. And they taught in Judah, and had 
the book of the law of the Lord with them, 
and went about throughout all the cities of Judah, 
and taught the people," 2 Chron. 17, 7-9. The 
scribe (sofer), the learned man, seems to have been 
the professional teacher from this time on. "Where 
is the scribe?" Is. 33, 18. "Thy teachers (inter- 
preters) have transgressed against me," Is. 43, 27. 
"The Lord God hath given me the tongue of the 
learned" (professional teacher), Is. 50, 4. "The 
priests said not, Where is the Lord and they that 
handle the law knew me not: the pastors also trans- 
gressed against me, and the prophets prophecied by 
Baal," Jer. 2, 8. Although the argument of varia- 
tion might be advanced here, the fact that the word;> 
were in use seems to point to the existence of sepa- 
rate offices. "From the prophet even unto the priest 
every one dealeth falsely," Jer. 6, 13. "The law 
shall perish from the priest, and counsel from the 
ancients," Hesek. 7, 26. This is commonly regarded 
to mean that there were teachers outside of the 
priests, who were interpreters of the Law, expound- 
ing it in the schools and applying it to every circum- 
stance and condition of everyday life. 

Whether there were specially equipped general 
schools with buildings or rooms set apart for that pur- 



THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 39 

pose at this time, cannot be determined from the ma- 
terial available. But that reading and writing were 
general, common accomplishments, is evident from 
several passages. That Shaphan the scribe was also 
the reader in public cannot be advanced as a valid 
counter-argument, 2 Kings 22, 8 ff. 2 Kings 23, 2. 2, 
Chron. 34, 18. The writing of letters by Jehu and 
the reading of them by the elders of Jezreel is not 
recorded as anything extraordinary, 2 Kings 10, I. 
"Read this (book) I pray thee: and he saith, I can- 
not for it is sealed: And the book is delivered to 
him that is not learned, saying, Read this, I pray 
thee: and he saith, I am not learned," Is. 29, 1 1, 
12. This same example could be used in our days 
without reproach. It argues for a. general knowl- 
edge of reading, not against it. "Write the vision 
and make it plain upon tables, that he may run that 
readeth it," Hab. 2, 2. "Take thee a roll and write 
therein," Baruch wrote. Jer. 36, 2. Upon the occa- 
sion of a transfer of property, Jeremiah subscribed 
the evidence, but the witnesses also subscribed the 
book of the purchase, Jer. 32, lO, 12. Both forms 
of writing were apparently in use, according to these 
passages: the writing on (clay) tablets and also in 
rolls. 

From all the available material we may conclude 
that the teaching of the Law, including the prophe- 
cies (Torah, Nebiim, Ketubim) was general during 



40 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

the period, that reading and writing was a common 
accomplishment, and that a great majority of the 
people, who enjoyed the services of interpreters, 
scribes, or teachers, also had some knowledge of 
arithmetic, geography, music, astronomy, arts and 
crafts. Is. 44, 12, 13. Is. 46, 6. 

Before continuing in the discussion of the next 
period of Jewish history, it must be noted that with 
the leading away of the Jews into exile, there begins 
that period of their history which produced the 
Talmud (in the general, more comprehensive mean- 
ing). As soon as Nebuchadnezzer had taken down 
large numbers of the population of Judea into Baby- 
lonia, so tradition has it, king Jehoiachin founded 
an academy of Jewish learning at Nehardea, erec- 
ting a special building for that purpose. This school 
apparently existed for several centuries. The acad- 
emy of Ezra was near Huzal. While the Great 
Synagogue cannot be established as historical, yet 
there are sufficient evidences of oral tradition lead- 
ing back to some such body, and making the be- 
ginnings of Talmudic interpretation very probable 
for the period of the exile. It is quite true that 
there are no authentic written documents, and yet 
the tradition cannot be ignored. 

In order to avoid confusion and to retain the di- 
vision of historical periods in our discussion, we 
shall continue to give a short historical survey of the 



THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 41 

remaining periods of the Jewish history: the Exilic, 
the Persian, the Hellenic, the Maccabean, and the 
Roman periods, together with a brief presentation 
of the status of education from Biblical and Apocry- 
phal sources, and then finally embrace the time from 
the beginning of the exile to the decline of the acad- 
emies in Palestine and Babylonia, and discuss the 
education of this entire period as shown in passages 
of the Talmud. 



Ill 

THE EXILIC PERIOD, 586-536 B. C. 

From the Taking of the Last Band of Jews 

INTO Babylonia to the Return of the 

First Exiles 

Historical Survey 

JERUSALEM and the temple had been de- 
stroyed by the Bablyonian invaders. This fact 
also had a very definite influence on the hopes 
if the Jews as to their speedy return. Most 
of them followed the advice of Jeremiah (29, 5-7) 
and Ezechiel (39) and prepared for a stay of sev- 
eral generations. They built themselves houses and 
dwelt in them, they planted gardens and ate of their 
fruit. They were in general, several disagreeable in- 
cidents excepted, permitted the free exercise of their 
religion. They gave up none of their established 
customs. And since they looked upon the exile as a 
punishment of God for their laxity and denial, they 
were more than ever anxious to return to the wor- 
ship of the true God and the keeping of all the com- 
mandments and statutes delivered to Moses. Every- 
thing was auspicious, not only for a revival of the 
42 



THE EXILIC PERIOD 43 

revealed religion, but also for quiet internal growth 
and an almost imperceptible process of assimilation 
of secular knowledge and learning. From fifty to 
seventy years they had been in exile, when the prom- 
ised deliverance came. It was in the year 538 B. C. 
that Cyrus vanquished the Babylonian army. He 
made Kyaxares, called by Daniel Darius of Medea, 
nominal ruler of the empire. But when Darius had 
died, in 536, Cyrus himself took up the reign. One 
of his first official acts was a proclamation permit- 
ting the exiled Jews to return to their country, not, 
indeed, as a politically independent people, but with 
the assurance of full religious liberty. It must be 
noted, however, that not all the Jews returned to Je- 
rusalem at this time, but only a small part. The 
younger generation apparently looked upon Baby- 
lonia as their home country. But the academies 
fostered the feeling of nationalism and nourished the 
hope of the return of the ancient glory. 

Education during the Exilic Period 

The passages of the Bible concerning the status of 
education during this period are few in number and 
very meagre as to contents. But from the material 
at hand and from the spirit of the writings trans- 
mitted to us there can be no doubt that the same 
principles as to the bringing up and the education of 



44 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

children prevailed at this time as in the previous 
periods. Children were esteemed very highly as 
special blessings of God. One of the most terrible 
curses pronounced upon the idolatrous Jews was: 
"Famine and evil beasts shall bereave thee," Ezek. 
5, 17. According to this passage, the relation be- 
tween parents and children was that of kindness and 
tender solicitude, and to be deprived of children was 
considered a most terrible visitation of God. The 
power of parents over their children was practically 
unlimited, with the object, however, of serving their 
interests, Jer. 29, 6. On the other hand, a "criminal 
son shall surely die, his blood shall be upon him," 
Ezek. 18, 13. 

That systematic instruction was given, at least in 
certain circles, seems to be evident from the story of 
Daniel and his friends. Ashpenaz was told to se- 
lect from among the captive young men "children in 
whom was no blemish, but well favored, and skillful 
in all wisdom, and cunning in knowledge, and un- 
derstanding science, and such as had ability in them 
to stand in the king's palace, and whom they might 
teach the learning ... of the Chaldeans," 
Dan. I, 4, 17. Now although these four were "of 
the king's seed, and of the princes," yet the text 
does not in any way limit the accomplishments men- 
tioned to these young men. It seems more in con- 
formity with the words to believe that a fair degree 



THE EXILIC PERIOD 45 

of knowledge was general among the Jewish young 
men, and that these four, in a competitive examina- 
tion, ranked highest. So far as Daniel is concerned, 
Josephus even states that he was "already sufficiently 
skilled in wisdom" to meet all the requirements of 
the king. Outside of this one passage, special sub- 
jects of instruction or study are not mentioned in the 
books pertaining to this period. We have no reason 
to assume, however, that the ability to read and write 
was not a fairly general accomplishment, as well as 
the other branches necessary for commercial pur- 
suits and professional life. Even the art of map 
drawing with the incidental knowledge of geography 
and arithmetic, is introduced in a rather casual 
manner, Ezek. 4, i. 

There were specially appointed teachers during 
this period, not primarily, indeed, for secular, but 
for religious instruction. Since, however, the inter- 
pretative method of teaching made necessary at 
least an elementary knowledge of the common school 
branches, we may well speak of regular and general 
instruction and training, not very elaborate under 
the circumstances, to be sure, but still of consid- 
erable importance. "They that understand among 
the people shall instruct many," Dan. 11, 33. "And 
they that be wise shall shine as the brightness of the 
firmament; and they that turn many to righteous- 
ness as the stars for ever and ever," Dan. 12, 3. 



46 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

These passages refer to teachers, to them that in- 
struct, to the wise men, and that there were quite a 
number of them, even during the exile, appears from 
this very general remark. 



IV 

THE PERSIAN PERIOD, 538-332 B. C. 
Brief Historical Survey 

WITH the overthrow of the Babylon- 
ian empire, the jews did not, Indeed, 
regain their liberty, neither in a po- 
litical nor a commercial respect, but 
their condition was, nevertheless, ameliorated to a 
great extent. Cyrus proved rather friendly to them, 
especially so far as their religion was concerned. 
Immediately upon his accession to the throne, he 
issued the proclamation permitting the Jews to re- 
turn to their country. At the same time, he brought 
forth the vessels of the house of the Lord, which 
Nebuchadnezzar had taken as trophies of war from 
Jerusalem. Under the leadership of prince Zer- 
ubbabel and the high priest Jeshua some 60,000 peo- 
ple made the journey back to the desolate city Jeru- 
salem. The first attempts at restoration, especially 
the rebuilding of the temple, were such pitiful ef- 
forts in comparison with the former glory that the 
older members of the people that had seen Solomon's 
temple, burst into tears. In addition to that, the 
Samaritans did everything in their power to hinder 
47 



48 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

the progress of the work. It was not until 516 B. C. 
that the Jews were able to dedicate their new tem- 
ple. This was during the reign of Darius Hystaspis. 
During the next sixty years, the Jews that re- 
mained in Babylonia suffered somewhat from op- 
pression, but were finally liberated in a most glorious 
manner. Xerxes is very probably the king of whom 
the Book of Esther speaks. In 458 B. C. the priest 
and scribe Ezra, who seems to have had some influ- 
ence at the Persian court, went back to his native 
country. He had been in charge of an academy in 
Babylonia and his purpose was to effect a thorough- 
going reform of religion in Judea. A great number 
of exiles accompanied him and aided very greatly in 
the work that he had set himself to do. While he 
had some success, the material prosperity of the Jews 
at Jerusalem was not enhanced. When Nehemiah, 
the cupbearer of the Persian king Artaxerxes (Long- 
imanus), heard of this, he was moved to give up his 
important position and hasten to the aid of his 
brethren. It was fortunate that the king gave him 
full commission and power to act, because the state 
of things at Jerusalem was approaching chaos when 
Nehemiah appeared. He had the walls repaired 
and the gates restored. He also, together with Ezra, 
again established religious services and brought or- 
der into the civic body. And when, after his return 
to his position in the East, the succeeding governors 



THE PERSIAN PERIOD 49 

were not equal to the situation, he returned to the 
city, and eventually drove the Moabite Saneballat, 
the chief mischief-maker, into Samaria. The next 
century under Persian sovereignty was comparative- 
ly uneventful. During this time of peace, hovi^ever, 
the Jews had the best opportunity for readjustment 
and thorough organization of their educational meth- 
ods. The influence of the Babylonian academies and 
the Great Synagogue was being felt with increasing 
strength. While the extent of this influence can- 
not be measured exactly, in the absence of authentic 
information, there can be no doubt that it was very 
great and lasting. 

Education during the Persian Period 

All the factors enumerated above : the influence 
of a strong, but wise government, the reformation of 
the church and the restoration of the religion of 
Moses, the contact with people of great enlighten- 
ment, — they all had a very definite influence on the 
Jewish people, especially in education. While sec- 
ular subjects had never been entirely neglected 
among them, a new impetus was now given to their 
study, and the imperative need of a thorough and 
comprehensive system in education and of a proper 
equipment for such a system was coming to be felt 
more and more. 



50 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

The order regarding the relation between parents 
and children was obviously insisted upon with great- 
er vigor. The power of parents over their chil- 
dren was practically unlimited. The giving and 
taking in marriage was a right which the parents 
dared not to abrogate. "Give not your daughters 
unto their sons, neither take their daughters unto 
your sons : that ye may be strong and eat the good of 
the land, and leave it for an inheritance to your chil- 
dren forever," Ezra 9, 12. "Ye shall not give your 
daughters unto their sons, nor take their daughters 
unto your sons, nor for yourselves," Nehem. 13, 25. 
In accordance with this provision of the law, the obe- 
dience of children and of those under authority was 
almost absolute. "Esther (as queen) did the com- 
mandment of Mordecai, like as when she was 
brought up with him," Esther 2, 20. Esther had 
been Mordecai's ward and he had, according to Jew- 
ish law, been completelv 'in loco parentis' toward her, 
and she obeyed him as a matter of course. "A son 
honoreth his father," Mai. i, 6. That was the self- 
evident status, the father occupying, by virtue of his 
parenthood, a position of honor, and the son, by vir- 
tue of his sonship, giving his father the respect and 
obedience due his position. 

That schools were established in Palestine, at least 
during the early part of this period, seems very im- 
probable from the material at hand. Writing was 



THE PERSIAN PERIOD 51 

generally known, and therefore reading also, to the 
Jews in the exile at the time of Xerxes, for the 
proclamation for the Jews was written in their writ- 
ing and their language and was therefore evidently 
read by them also, Esther 8, 9. Whether the bilin- 
gual question, with which Nehemiah was obliged to 
contend at his time, ever reached the schools, is not 
evident from the passage, Nehem. 13, 24. 

Certain it is that regular teaching was carried on 
in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, but whether this 
included religious instruction only, or was extended 
to embrace secular subjects also, does not appear 
from Biblical sources. The Levites were the regu- 
lar teachers of the peoples, Nehem. 8, 7, 9. "Ezra 
had prepared his heart to teach in Israel statutes and 
judgments," Ezra 7, 10. The "men of understand- 
ing" mentioned by Ezra were the teachers of the peo- 
ple, who gave them understanding of the law, Ezra 
8, 16, 18. "The priest's lips should keep knowl- 
edge," Mai. 2, 7. 

The passages adduced here have reference exclu- 
sively to religious teaching, or the reading and teach- 
ing of the Law. But, aside from evidence which 
will be introduced later, it would be a mistake to 
argue 'e silentio' that instruction in secular branches 
was unknown during this period. It is expressly 
stated that the teachers not only read the law 
(taught by rote), but they also "gave the sense and 



52 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

caused the people to understand the reading," 
Nehem. 8, 8. According to Jewish custom, that can 
mean but one thing, that they took up all the ques- 
tions touched upon in the holy books, and heard dis- 
cussions of the elements of all branches of knowledge. 



THE HELLENIC PERIOD, 332-165 B. C. 

From the Conquest of Judea by Alexander 

THE Great to the Defeat of the Syrians 

BY Judas Maccabeus 

Historical Survey 

THE transition from Persian to Hellenic 
sovereignty in Judea was attended with 
but little disturbance, as Josephus relates 
the story. After the Samaritan leader 
had renounced allegiance to Darius, and Alexander, 
after taking the city of Tyre, was marching down 
through Judea on his way to Egypt, the high-priest 
Jaddua conceived of a daring plan to gain the good- 
will of the conqueror. Clad in all his robes of office, 
attended by the priests, and followed by the inhabi- 
tants of Jerusalem, he went out to meet Alexander. 
His plan succeeded splendidly. Alexander bowed 
down before Jaddua and explained to his officers that 
he had once in a dream seen a man in such vestments, 
who had promised him the conquest of Asia. He 
then inspected the city and the temple, made a sac- 
rifice on the main altar, excused the Jews from the 
53 



54 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

payment of taxes for one year, and granted them 
free exercise of their religion. With the death of 
Alexander, however, only ten years later, the Jew- 
ish hopes received a temporary setback. Ptolemaeus 
Lagus, after a long struggle, gained the mastery 
over Egypt and Judea. He, as well as his successor, 
Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, took an active interest in 
the arts and sciences, and many Jews were induced 
to move to Egypt with the prospect of great mater- 
ial advantages. Most of these settled at Alexan- 
dria, where they became acquainted with Greek 
learning. The immense library of Alexandria was 
begun by Ptolemaeus Philadelphus and the transla- 
tion of the Old Testament into Greek, the so-called 
Septuagint, was probably made at his instigation. 

About the year 247 B. C, the old struggle be- 
tween the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucidae of 
Syria was renewed and continued for almost fifty 
years. Judea was often the battle-ground, and Jeru- 
salem very often had to bear the brunt of the con- 
flict. Antiochus HI finally vanquished the Ptolemies 
and Judea apparently was to have an era of peace 
and prosperity. Antiochus proved a friend of the 
Jews, he permitted them to repair the temple, 
granted full religious liberty, and persuaded many 
of the Jews to form colonies in various parts of 
Asia Minor, as well as in Mesopotamia. This happy 
condition was radically changed under Antiochus 



THE HELLENIC PERIOD 55 

the Noble. When one of his favorites, Jason, who 
had usurped the position of high priest in Jerusalem, 
and introduced pagan ceremonies, was driven from 
the city, he began a series of atrocious assaults. Jeru- 
salem was taken, thousands were killed, other thou- 
sands sold as slaves, the walls of the city were razed 
and the Jewish religion was declared obsolete. The 
final result was that a staunch Jewish patriarch, 
Mathathias, gathered the faithful about him, en- 
trenched himself in the mountains, made sudden 
attacks upon the enemy, and gradually recovered a 
considerable portion of the country. And his son, Ju- 
das Maccabeus, took up the work where he had re- 
linquished it. He routed the Syrians in several 
great battles, took the city of Jerusalem, and re- 
stored the Jewish religion. 

Education during the Hellenic Period 

It appears from the history of this period that 
there were two eras of quiet, one of rather short 
duration, at the end of the fourth century B. C, and 
the other during the time of the first Ptolemies. 
These periods, especially the latter, were very favor- 
able to the development of the arts and sciences. 
With Greek learning, especially to the extent in 
which it was introduced, came, in some measure at 
least, the Greek system of education. If there was 



56 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

no definite educational or school system established, 
by which the results of Greek learning were com- 
municated to the young, there must, at least, have 
been sufficient intercourse to permit of an absorption 
of Greek learning by the leaders of the Jewish peo- 
ple. More definite conclusions can be drawn only 
for the succeeding historical periods, and in the final 
summary of the entire Talmudic period the addi- 
tional information will enable us to reach more defi- 
nite conclusions. 

The only book from which we may obtain relia- 
ble information, though rather meagre, as to the 
status of education during this period, is the Book 
Ecclesiasticus, commonly known as the "Wisdom of 
Jesus, the Son of Sirach." The date of this book is 
given as pertaining to the next period, but its con- 
tents belong to this period, since the proverbs were 
gathered by the men of one family during the course 
of three generations. We have, therefore, a fair 
picture of the conditions and of the ideals of the 
time, about the end of the third and the beginning 
of the second century before Christ. 

It appears from this book that the educational 
ideals of earlier times were insisted upon with even 
greater emphasis at this time. The new feeling of 
nationalism and the thorough reformation of the 
church insisted upon a slavish return to ancient laws 
and customs, and the movement was aided by the 



THE HELLENIC PERIOD 57 

academies and synagogues in the various larger cit- 
ies and influential centres to such a degree, that lit- 
eral interpretations of the law and slavish adherence 
to its very letter was practiced among the conserva- 
tive Jews, who were the leaders of the people. The 
position of the parents is defined with unequivocal 
definiteness. "If thou hast children, bring them up 
well, and bend their neck frorri their youth up. If 
thou have daughters, preserve their body and do not 
pamper them. Counsel thy daughter, then hast thou 
done a great deed, and give her to a sensible man," 
Sir. 7, 25-27. "Rejoice not, because thou hast many 
evil children, neither boast, because thou hast many 
children, if they fear not God. It is better to have 
one pious child than a thousand impious. And it is 
better to die without children than to have godless 
ones," Sir. 6, 1.3.4. Children were most desirable 
treasures then, and considered great gifts of God, 
and their bringing up, their moral training was en- 
trusted to the parents, upon whom the full responsi- 
bility rested. The power of the parents was just as 
unlimited as in any of the previous periods. 

On the other hand, the relation of children to par- 
ents was defined just as exactly. "The Lord will 
have the father honored of the children, and what- 
soever a mother commands the children, He wants 
the same kept," Sir. 3, 3, 7, fF. "Whosoever hon- 
ors his father, will live all the longer, and whosoever 



58 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

is obedient for the Lord's sake, is a consolation to 
his mother" ; vs. 9 : "Honor thy father and thy moth- 
er with deeds, words, and patience, that their bless- 
ings may come upon thee. For the blessing of the 
father builds houses for children, but the curse of 
the mother destroys them." "Honor thy father with 
all thy heart, and forget not what a care thou hast 
been to thy mother," Sir. 7, 29. "An impertinent 
son is a dishonor to his father. A sensible daugh- 
ter will very likely get a husband, but a spoiled 
daughter is unsought and brings care to her father," 
Sir. 22, 3, 4. "Forget not the teaching of thy 
father and thy mother, so shalt thou sit among the 
lords," Sir. 23, 18. Respect, honor, obedience, a 
careful regard for the teaching of the parents were 
required absolutely of children, while impertinence, 
lack of respect, want of shame, and vileness were 
condemned. 

These demands, moreover, were required to be en- 
forced with the utmost strictness. As the home was 
considered the foundation of the nation and the chil- 
dren the future representatives of God's chosen peo- 
ple before the world, laxity in discipline was con- 
sidered not merely foolish, but almost criminal. Sev- 
eral chapters are devoted almost exclusively to this 
topic, notably chapters 26 and 30. Some of the sig- 
nificant verses are the following. "If thy daughter 
be not chaste, keep her very strictly, lest she perform 



THE HELLENIC PERIOD 59 

her wantonness, if she have too much liberty," Sir. 
26, 13. "He that loves his child, holds it under the 
rod, in order that he may afterward experience joy 
from the same. ... A spoiled child becomes 
wanton, like a wild horse. . . . Do not give 
him license in his youth, and excuse not his foolish- 
ness," Sir. 30, I ff. It may be worthy of note here 
that the death penalty for an unruly child is not 
mentioned, but that in general the severity of deal- 
ing with a disobedient son is emphasized even more 
than in previous periods. 

So far as systematic instruction is concerned, there 
is no evidence of a general school system at this 
time, with the exception of religious schools, Sirach 
38, 25. 39, 1-15, which were probably conducted, 
especially in the Diaspora, in connection with the 
synagogues. But we may infer that the influence of 
the great academies was far-reaching even at this 
time and that Greek learning and education was 
also a factor in determining thought and trend 
among the leaders of the Jews. Men like Jesus 
Sirach, for instance, undoubtedly were educated 
fully up to the demand of the times. It might be 
argued from Sir. 38, 38, 39, that even such simple 
accomplishments as reading and writing were unusual 
at that time. But from that passage as well as from 
vs. 38 fiF. in the next chapter one may argue with 
equal plausibility that the Book of Ecclesiasticus was 



6o EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

written for the use of the general public and that 
everybody was expected to be able to read its precepts 
readily. If there is at all such a thing as advance- 
ment and building up on an excellent foundation, it 
would be far more in keeping with the circumstances 
to infer the existence of religious schools, where ele- 
mentary training was given, at least in the principal 
cities. For that these schools did not confine them- 
selves to the teaching of religious and moral pre- 
cepts, has been emphasized above, and shall be dis- 
cussed in a more extended manner from the Tal- 
mud. 



VI 

THE MACCABEAN PERIOD, 165-63 B. C. 

From the Defeat of the Syrians by Judas 
Maccabeus to the Conquest of Jerusa- 
lem BY POMPEY 

Historical Summary 

AFTER the defeat of the Syrians and the 
conquest of Jerusalem by Judas Macca- 
beus, the power of the Syrians was al- 
most broken. The first concession the 
victorious Jews insisted upon was full religious lib- 
erty with all attendant privileges. Jonathan Mac- 
cabeus, by a fine stroke of diplomacy, succeeded in 
obtaining the office of high priest for himself. The 
third brother, Simon Maccabeus, went a step far- 
ther and gained for his family the hereditary eth- 
narchy. His grandson, Aristobulus, the son of Hyr- 
canus, changed the government to a kingdom, as- 
suming the title of king for himself. And his 
brother, Alexander Janneus practically restored the 
independence of the kingdom, regaining for it also 
the extent and virtually the power of the time of 
David. Owing to the fact, however, that the office 
61 



62 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

of king and that of high priest were vested in one 
person, the more zealous among the Jews incited the 
people and precipitated a civil war which, a few 
years later, gave the Roman general Pompey a wel- 
come excuse for intervention. The inevitable result 
was the conquest of Judea and the seizure of Jeru- 
salem by the Romans, 63 B. C, Aristobulus the king 
and his children were taken to Rome to be exhibited 
in the triumphal pageant, and the independence of 
Judea was a thing of the past. 

Education during the Maccabean Period 

"At this time there were three sects among the 
Jews," relates Josephus, "the Pharisees, the Sad- 
ducees, and the Essenes," Antiq., Book XIII, Ch. 
V. This remark is significant, because it shows a 
high development of learning among the Jews at 
that time. The era was certainly an auspicious one 
for advance along all lines, including educational 
matters. There was, especially at the time of the 
great festivals, intercourse with the Jews who had 
founded colonies in Babylonia, in Egypt, through- 
out Asia Minor, and elsewhere, but retained the re- 
ligion and all their customs. Ever ready to accom- 
modate themselves to their own advantage, the Jews 
absorbed the learning of the most civilized nations 
of the time by contact, if not by actual study in the 



THE MACCABEAN PERIOD 63 

foremost schools and universities of the world. In 
one respect alone they remained perfectly isolated, 
in their religion and, to some extent, in their lan- 
guage, the Hebrew-Aramaic, which was their home 
tongue. Just how much the Jews advanced along 
all lines at this time, will be shown in the discussion 
of the Talmudic period. In the apocryphal books, 
we have, for this period, the account of the Mac- 
cabees, their wars and the political activity, with no 
special reference to educational matters. There can 
be no doubt, however, from passages like 2 Mace. 
7, 28, that the love of parents toward their chil- 
dren and their authority was just as great as in form- 
er periods. Incidentally, it is told that the Hebrew 
mother nursed her child about three years, this, then, 
being considered the time of infancy. 



VII 

THE ROMAN PERIOD, 63 B. C— 70 A. D. 

Historical Summary 

WHEN the Romans, as Joseph us re- 
lates, had made Jerusalem tributary to 
their empire, Hyrcanus II remained 
at first both high priest and ethnarch, 
with the full power of both offices. It was not long 
though before Antipater, upon whom Caesar had 
already bestowed the privilege of the Roman citizen- 
ship, succeeded in becoming the procurator of Judea. 
By this decree of Csesar the Jews lost the last vestige 
of political independence and became a dependent 
principality. Antipater made his son Phasaelus gov- 
ernor of Jerusalem, and Herod, of Galilee. The 
Roman Anthony later elevated both of them to the 
rank of tetrarch. Herod the Great assumed the ti- 
tle of king. After his death, the Jewish countrj^ was 
divided among his three sons, Archelaus having the 
provinces of Idumea, Judea, and Samaria, with the 
title of ethnarch ; Philip the country east of Jordan, 
with the title tetrarch; and Herod Antipas, Gali- 
64 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 65 

lee and Peraea, with the title tetrarch. Archelaus 
(Matth. 2, 22) began his reign with such acts of 
cruelty and revenge that he was soon banished to 
Gaul. After that, these provinces were under the 
jurisdiction of governors (Pontius Pilate, Felix, Fes- 
tus, etc.), who, in turn, were responsible to the pro- 
praetor or proconsul of Syria. Herod Antipas tried 
to gain the title of King for himself, but was cir- 
cumvented by his nephew, Herod Agrippa I, through 
whose machinations he found himself exiled to Gaul. 
Herod Agrippa I succeeded gradually in having 
Palestine made a province separate from that of 
Syria. He was followed by his son, Agrippa H, 
who held the title of king. It was under his reign 
that the party of Zealots in Jerusalem became so 
strong that they stirred up a rebellion against the 
Romans. The result is well-known. The Roman 
general Vespasian began the conquest of the prov- 
ince and made the plans for the siege of the city, and 
his son Titus took Jerusalem. The conquerors knew 
no mercy. The city was sacked and plundered, 
razed and burned. The number of captives remain- 
ing is given by Josephus as amounting to 97,000. 
Seventeen thousand young men were sent to Alex- 
andria as slaves, other thousands were kept for the 
plays in the arena. The Jewish nation ceased to 
exist. The Jews were dispersed among all nations. 
That was in the year 70 A. D. 



66 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
Education During the Roman Period 

There is a great deal more to be said for this 
period than that which is contained in Biblical pas- 
sages. Nevertheless, the material from which con- 
clusions may be drawn is comprehensive and satis- 
factory to a greater extent than in the preceding 
periods. Whether Roman learning ever exerted a 
great influence on the Jewish people or their educa- 
tional system, is not evident and is highly improba- 
ble. The superscription on the cross was indeed 
in the Hebrew, the Greek, and the Latin tongue, 
but it is probable that the Latin was merely for the 
sake of the soldiers and to emphasize the fact that 
judgment had been passed under Roman jurisdiction. 
In the Roman decrees quoted by Josephus, the sep- 
aration or isolation of the Jews from the people 
among whom they were living is commented upon, 
and they were allowed to live and act in all things 
according to the customs of their forefathers. 

It cannot be a matter of surprise then, that, in 
their comparative isolation, the Jews retained all 
their laws and customs, and exercised jurisdiction 
over the members of their nation in all minor mat- 
ters pertaining to their Law. The relation of par- 
ents to their children, their authority, their respon- 
sibility, and also the love which they owed their 
offspring, is emphasized in several cases. "Behold 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 67 

thy father and I have sought thee sorrowing," Luke 
2, 48. "If ye, then, being evil, know how to give 
good gifts unto your children," Matth. 7, 11. "The 
children ought not to lay up for the parents, but the 
parents for the children," 2 Cor. 12, 14. "Ye fath- 
ers, provoke not your children to wrath, but bring 
them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord," 
Eph. 6, 4. The relation of the children toward their 
parents is again one of respect, love, and obedience. 
''The child grew and waxed strong in spirit, filled 
with wisdom, and the grace of God was upon Him. 
He was subject unto them. He increased 
in wisdom, and in stature, and in favor with God 
and man," Luke 2, 40, 51, 52. "Honor thy father 
and mother, which is the first commandment with 
promise: that it may be well with thee and thou 
mayest live long on the earth," Eph. 6, 2. In order 
to maintain the right relation between parents and 
children, the discipline spoken of in the Law was 
maintained with all the rigor which the Jews were 
still permitted to use. "God commanded, saying: 
Honor thy father and mother; and: He that curs- 
eth father and mother, let him die the death," 
Matth. 15, 4. "What son is he whom the father 
chasteneth not? But if ye be without chastisement, 
whereof all are partakers, then are ye bastards, and 
not sons," Hebr. 12, 7, 8. 

Parents were held responsible for at least the reli- 



68 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

gious instruction of their children, for the bringing 
up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord. The 
instruction, however, was not confined to the home. 
The synagogues (houses of assembly, of prayer, of 
teaching) that are mentioned throughout the histor- 
ical books of the New Testament, had their origin 
at the time of the first kings: "They have burned up 
all the synagogues of God in the land," Ps. 74, 8. 
At the time of the Romans, there was a synagogue in 
every city of any size in Palestine, as well as in 
many other cities where the Jews were at all numer- 
ous. "Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in 
their synagogues," Matth. 4, 23. 9, 35. 13, 54. 
Mark i, 21, 39. 6, 2. Luke 4, 15. 13, 10. John 

18, 20. There was a synagogue at Antioch in Pisi- 
dia (Acts 13, 14), Iconium (Acts 14, i), Thessa- 
lonica (Acts 17, 1), Berea (Acts 17, 10), Athens 
(Acts 17, 17), Corinth (Acts 18, 4), Ephesus 
(Acts 18, 19) ; there were several in Damascus 
(Acts 9, 2, 20), Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13, 5), 
Alexandria in Egypt, and Antioch in Syria. These 
synagogues were not used for services only, consisting 
of Scripture readings and prayer, but also for lec- 
tures and expositions of the Scriptures (Luke 4, 
21 fiF.) These lectures may sometimes have been 
held in the adjoining "house of learning," Acts 19, 

19. The school of Tyrannus mentioned in this pas- 
sage was probably a school patterned after the 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 69 

Greek "Gymnasia." That there were also other 
schools at this time, appears from several references 
in the New Testament. "After three days they 
found him in the temple, sitting in the midst of the 
doctors, both hearing them and asking them ques- 
tions," Luke 2, 46. Here we have a school of a 
special kind, which will be spoken of later. "Paul 
was brought up in Jerusalem at the feet of Gamaliel, 
and taught according to the perfect manner of the 
law of the fathers," Acts 22, 3. Here we have a 
school of a still different kind, and apparently a very 
advanced one, for Paul was versed not only in the 
Law, but also in secular knowledge, and even showed 
familiarity with Greek poetry. It is evident, then, 
that the educational system of the Jews was devel- 
oped quite highly in this period. Just how far the 
Jews were advanced, will be evident from the dis- 
cussion of Talmudic times. 

THE TALMUDIC PERIOD 

The Talmudic period, though considered as be- 
ginning after the destruction of Jerusalem and the 
dissolution of the Jewish nation, may nevertheless be 
said to extend back to the time of the exile. There 
are three principal reasons for this statement. In 
the first place, as noted above, Jewish tradition in 
regard to the Great Synagogue and the oral trans- 



70 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

mission of rabbinical exposition cannot be ignored 
entirely. In the second place, the nucleus of the 
Mishna in its unwritten form extends back several 
centuries before Christ. The cessation of prophecy re- 
moved a certain restriction upon writing, and the ex- 
ample of Jesus Sirach was undoubtedly imitated of- 
tener than accounts relate. And lastly, many of the 
institutions referred to in the Talmud date back sev- 
eral centuries, and the discussion thus throws light 
on conditions that existed long before the actual 
gathering of the materials in book-form. It is, un- 
fortunately, extremely difficult to fix dates in the 
discussion with the necessary exactness, but the ap- 
proximate time may be given according to tradition. 
Even at the time of Jesus, the "tradition of the 
elders" played an important part in some discussions, 
Matth. 15, 2, 3, and elsewhere. And the schools of 
Gamaliel, of Hillel and Shammai, where the pre- 
cepts of tradition were taught (Mishna) were in a 
flourishing condition even before the fall of Je- 
rusalem. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Rabbi 
Johanan ben Zakkai, who had gained the favor of 
Vespasian, asked permission to establish a school of 
Jewish law, and when this was given, settled at Jab- 
neh, or Jamnia, near Joppa. In this school, to 
which Jews from all over the world sent their sons, 
was begun the final development of the form of the 
tradition or exposition of the Law. Gamaliel the 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 71 

Younger and Akiba were especially influential 
teachers. About the end of the second century, Rab- 
bi Juda ben Simon was the leader of this school. He 
established as authoritative and decisive the Mishna 
of Akiba, which probably at this time ceased to be 
oral and was committed to writing. The Jabneh 
school was transferred to Tiberias, but soon deteri- 
orated. The scholastic center shifted to Babylon in 
the production of the Gemara or the Talmud prop- 
er. The great teacher instrumental in effecting this 
change was Rabbi Abba Rab, whose school at Ba- 
bylon soon had 1200 students. His academy was 
located at Sura, but was often transferred to Pum- 
bedita. Samuel's academy was at Nehardea, a con- 
tinuation, according to tradition, of the academy 
founded by king Jehoiachin. 

In the fifth century A. D., Rabbi Aschi had the 
oral explanations, discussions, decisions, etc., based 
on the Mishna collected in the Babylonian Talmud. 
About the same time, the teachers in Palestine made 
a similar collection, which is known as the Jerusalem 
Talmud. The Mishna, then, is the oral tradition, 
or the oral common law of the Jews since the time 
of the exile, and, in part, probably dating back even 
farther. The Midrash, or commentary in general, 
embraces every kind of explanation or elucidation of 
Scripture, including the Mishna, but especially the 
Gemara, or Talmud proper, and the Tosephta. The 



72 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

Haggadah is the illustrative and practical, the Hala- 
chah the exegetical commentary on the Old Testa- 
ment. The Halachah collection of Judahha-Nasi 
(63 tracts) is generally known by that name, while 
other collections of Halachah are designated as Bar- 
aitha. Among these collections were those called 
Tosephta. Peters says: "Rabbi Judah Hanassi col- 
lected all attainable rulings and precedents and pub- 
lished them in what we call the Mishna (1532 years 
after the giving of the Torah), . . . Many de- 
cisions not included (in the Mishna) were collected 
later under the name of Boraithoth in a work called 
the Tosephtha, or Addition (Supplement). . . . 
Yet other Boraithoth are to be found in the Gemara. 
The Gemara is a comment on the Mishna, just as 
the Mishna is a comment on the Torah or Law," p. 

7-9. 

That the education of the Jews about the time of 
the destruction of Jerusalem was very highly ad- 
vanced, is evident from such examples as that of 
Paul (mentioned above), and that of Josephus. The 
latter says of himself: "I was brought up with my 
brother, , . . and I made mighty proficiency in 
the improvements of my learning, and appeared to 
have both a great memory and understanding. More- 
over, when I was a child, and about fourteen years 
of age, I was commended to all for the love I had 
to learning; on which account the high priests and 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 73 

principal men of the city came then frequently to 
me together, in order to know my opinion about the 
accurate understanding of points of the law" (Life 
of Flavius Josephus, No. 2). "For those of my own 
nation freely acknowledge that I far exceed them in 
the learning belonging to Jews; I have also taken 
a great deal of pains to obtain the learning of the 
Greeks, and understand the elements of the Greek 
language, although I have so long accustomed my- 
self to speak our own tongue that I cannot pronounce 
Greek with sufficient exactness; for our nation does 
not encourage those that learn the languages of many 
nations, and so adorn their discourses with the 
smoothness of their periods; because they look upon 
this sort of accomplishment as common, not only to 
all sorts of free men, but to as many of the servants 
as please to learn them. But they give him the 
testimony of being a wise man, who is fully ac- 
quainted with our laws, and is able to interpret 
their meaning; on which account, as there have been 
many who have done their endeavors with great 
patience to obtain this learning, there have yet hard- 
ly been so many as two or three that have succeeded 
therein, who were immediately well rewarded for 
their pains" (Antiq., Book XX, Chap. XI). 

Someone may argue that both Paul and Josephus 
were exceptions, being extraordinary men, even 
geniuses or at least unusually gifted. But the facts 



74 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

show that they had the opportunity to study and to 
advance themselves in knowledge, right in the midst 
of their own people. Moreover, Josephus writes in 
a very general way: "Our principal care of all is 
this, to educate our children well, and we think it to 
be the most necessary business of our whole life, to 
observe the laws that have been given us, and to 
keep those rules of piety that have been deliverd 
down to us" (Against Apion, Book I). 

As a matter of fact, while private schools, pro- 
phet schools, academies of learning, and synagogues 
had been in existence for quite a number of centuries, 
and some of them, at various times, had been in a 
flourishing condition, it was in the last century of 
the existence of the Jewish nation that the Jews 
advanced still farther and founded a school system 
for all boys, a public school system, maintained at 
public expense. Simon ben Shetah, who lived in the 
reign of Alexander Janneus and queen Alexandra 
(about 106-70 B. C. ) ordered the establishment of 
schools in all the large cities of Palestine. And 
during the reign of Agrippa II (44-70 A. D.) 
Joshua ben Gamla extended this order in so far as it 
now included all cities of Palestine and fixed a min- 
imum age for school boys as from six to seven years, 
or, according to another account, the completed fifth 
year. 

The educational maxims scattered throughout the 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 75 

various tracts of the Talmud enable one to gain a 
very fair estimate of the educational ideals of the 
Jews. By the saying: "Who is a wise man? He 
who learns from everybody," Tract Aboth (IX, 82), 
regular school instruction was by no means ex- 
cluded. "A city where there are not ten unemployed 
men who devote all their time to the study of the 
Law must be considered as a village," Tract Megilla 
(Vni, 6 ff.). These men were commonly known 
as scribes and belonged to the teaching force of the 
city. There was, then, "no excuse for illiteracy, 
neither poverty nor family," Tract Aboth (IX, 29- 
30). There was indeed, at one time, a discussion 
whether instruction ought not to be restricted to the 
members of the richer, better families, but apparent- 
ly the argument for a general, unrestricted instruc- 
tion prevailed. "The school of Shammai maintain 
that one shall teach only those who are wise, modest, 
rich, and come from a good family: the school of 
Hillel, however, hold that one may teach every one, 
as there were many transgressors in Israel, and after 
they had become upright men, pious, and righteous, 
engaged in the study of the Law, they had the good 
fortune that from them descended men of upright- 
ness, piety, and righteousness," Tract Aboth (IX, 
19). Some of the more gifted scholars among the 
Jews must have attained to a very high degree of 
learning, for it is said of the Sanhedrin: "Some of 



76 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

its members must be able to speak seventy languages, 
so an interpreter would not be needed," Tract Sanhe- 
drin (XV, 40). Women were not entirely excluded 
from all learning. "It is obligatory for women to 
hear the reading of the Megilla," Tract Megilla 
(VIII, 7). The Megilla includes the Song of Sol- 
omon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. 
There is no evidence, however, that women were ex- 
cluded from the general reading and study of the 
Law, especially since so many of the ordinances con- 
cerned them. Some women among the Jews were 
even highly educated. "Culture in a woman is bet- 
ter than gold," Peters, p. 159. As for the children, 
though they were prized very highly, as will be 
shown presently, their position was always a subor- 
dinate one." "One adduces no proof from a minor," 
Tract Megilla (VIII, 54). 

The office of the teacher was a highly respected 
and a most important one. A good teacher was val- 
ued as highly as the most important official of the 
state, though, at times, especially in the academies, 
he served without pay. Tract Aboth (IX, 35). "The 
teachers are the guardians of the State," Peters, p. 
161. "He who instructs a child is as if he had cre- 
ated it," ibid. "You should revere the teacher even 
more than the father. The latter only brought you 
into the world, the former indicates the way into 
the next. But blessed is the son who has learned 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 77 

from his father: he shall revere him both as his 
father and his master ; and blessed is the father who 
has instructed his son," Peters, p. 165. This rever- 
ence was carried so far that we read : "He who 
learns from another one chapter, one halachah, one 
verse, or one word or even a single letter, is bound 
to respect him," Tract Aboth,Chap. 6, Mish. 3. The 
teaching and the studying of the Law were placed 
above everything else. "The honoring of father and 
mother, acts of benevolence, hospitality to strangers, 
visiting the sick, devotion in prayer, promotion of 
peace between man and man, and study in general 
(remain intact against the exigencies of the world 
to come), but the study of the Law outweighs them 
all," Tract Shabbath (Hershon, 13, 49). "The 
study of the Law is of greater merit to rescue one 
from accidental death than building the temple, and 
greater than honoring father or mother," Tract 
Megilla (Hershon, 13, 49). This fact, that teach- 
ers were held in such high respect, is not even 
changed by reference to the somewhat obscure pas- 
sage: "Seven have, in the popular regard, no portion 
in the world to come : a notary, a school-master, the 
best of doctors, a judge in his native place, a con- 
juror, a congregational reader, and a butcher," 
Tract Aboth d 'Rabbi Nathan. This difficult pas- 
sage is, however, explained to some extent by the 
following: "The judge should ever regard himself 



78 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

as if he had a sword laid upon his thigh, and Ge- 
henna were yawning near him ; the best physicians 
are destined for hell, the most upright butcher is a 
partner of Amalek." The underlying idea seems to 
be that school-masters, like the other professional 
and trades-people mentioned, are so liable to sin 
grievously in their calling that there is little hope for 
them to escape everlasting punishment. A teacher 
was admonished: "Teach the children of the poor 
without compensation, and do not favor the children 
of the rich," Peters, p. 163. Only even-tempered 
men were permitted in this important station. "No 
irritable man can be a teacher," Tract Aboth (IX, 
60, 61 ). The older and more experienced the teach- 
er was, the greater was his value to the community. 
"Whom does he resemble who learns from the 
young? Him who eats unripe grapes and drinks the 
wine fresh from the winepress. But whom does he 
resemble who learns from old men? Him who eats 
ripe grapes and drinks old wine," Tract Aboth 
(IX, 87). The ideal teacher is described as follows: 
"The following fifteen customs are ascribed to the 
sages: He is pleasant in entering, and so also when 
leaving; is prudent in his fear for Heaven; versed in 
wisdom ; wise in his ways, has a good conception, a 
retentive memory, is clear in his answers, questions 
to the point and answers according to the Law; he 
learns something new from every chapter taught to 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 79 

him ; he is going to the wise, he learns for the pur- 
pose of teaching it and performing it," Tract Derech 
Eretz-Zuta (IX, 23). That a teacher who made 
a habit of flogging was not retained is shown in the 
case of a school-master who was removed "because 
he struck too much the pupils," Tract Maccoth 
(XVII, 40). 

The relation between teachers and pupils in gen- 
eral was to be one of respect and consideration for 
each other. The school-children were regarded as 
the greatest asset of the nation. "The world de- 
pends on its school-children," Peters, p. 158. "A 
town which has no school should be abolished," ibid. 
"Jerusalem was destroyed because the instruction of 
the young was neglected," p. 159. "The world is 
only saved by the breath of the school-children," 
ibid. "Even for the re-building of the Temple the 
instruction of the children must not be interrupted," 
ibid. A great teacher said of himself: "I learn 
much from my masters, more however from my col- 
leagues, and still more from my disciples," Tract 
Maccoth (XVII, 25). On the other hand, respect- 
ful consideration should actuate the pupil. "If the 
master err, the scholar should inform him, and not 
wait until it is published in order to gain honor for 
himself," Tract Shebuoth (XVII, 50). 

So far as pupils, disciples, or scholars in general 
are concerned, there are some interesting classifica- 



8o EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

tions to be found in the Talmud. "There are four 
kinds of pupils: one understands readily but forgets 
soon — there the advantage is swallowed by the fail- 
ing; another grasps but slowly and seldom forgets — 
there the failing is outweighed by the talent; a third 
understands readily and is slow to forget — his is a 
good portion; a fourth understands slowly and for- 
gets quickly — his is a poor endowment," Tract 
Aboth (IX, 131). Almost of the same kind is a 
passage following shortly after: "There are four 
kinds of the disciples of the wise: sponge, funnel, 
strainer, and sieve: sponge — sucking up all things; 
funnel — allowing all that is received in the one end 
to flow out at the other; strainer — letting the wine 
run through and retaining the dregs; sieve — blowing 
off the bran and keeping the flour," Tract Aboth 
(IX, 138). A passage which presents the same idea is 
found a few pages before (IX, gS). That the ad- 
vantage of absorbing readily, of a perceptive mem- 
ory, lies with the young, is expressed in the follow- 
ing passage: "One who is taught when young ab- 
sorbs the words of the Torah in his blood, and he 
can utter them explicitly, but the reverse is with one 
who is taught when old. There is also a proverb 
to this effect: If thou hast not desired them in thy 
youth, how wilt thou reach them in thy old age?" 
Tract Aboth (IX, 88, also 85). "To what may he 
be compared who teaches a child? To one who 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 8i 

writes on clean paper; and to what may he be com- 
pared who teaches an old man? To one who writes 
on blotted paper," Peters, p. 162. For a complete 
religious education a knowledge not only of Scrip- 
ture, but of the Mishna and Gemara (Midrash) 
also, including the Halachah, was required. "Who- 
soever is versed in Midrash, but not in Halachah, 
has not tasted of wisdom ; and he who is the oppo- 
site, has not tasted of the fear of sin. . . . One 
who is versed in Midrash, but not in Halachoth, is 
like unto a strong man, but who is unarmed ; one 
who is opposite is like an armed weakling. One, how- 
ever, who is versed in both is like unto a man who is 
both strong and armed," Tract Aboth (IX, loi). 
The meaning is that theoretical knowledge and prac- 
tical application must go hand in hand. The age, at 
which the various parts of religious instruction 
should be given, is stated as follows: "One five years 
old should study Scripture; ten years — Mishna; 
thirteen years old should practice the commandments ; 
fifteen years old should study Gemara; at twenty, 
pursue the study of the Law," Tract Aboth (IX, 
133). The ages given in this outline are approxi- 
mately the ages of the pupils in the various schools: 
infant school, elementary school, secondary school, 
academy or college. 

In study, the greatest industry, the most painstak- 
ing application was required on the part of the pu- 



82 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

pil, and, at the same time, the most indefatigable pa- 
tience on the part of the teacher. "Every disciple 
who has studied and then abandons his studies, has 
no share in the world to come. . . . Whoever 
does not visit the college which is in his city, has no 
share in the world to come." Tract Aboth (IX, 
122). "If you interrupt your studies for one day, 
it will take you two to regain what you have lost," 
Peters, p. 162. The patient teaching and learning 
by rote was carried so far that "Rabbi Perida had a 
pupil to whom he had to rehearse a lesson four hun- 
dred times before the latter comprehended it," and 
in one case, when the mind of the pupil had been dis- 
tracted, "he repeated the lesson a second four hun- 
dred times," Tract Eiruvin (Hershon, 242, 57). 
The rule was : "A master is bound to rehearse a 
lesson to his pupil four times," Tract Eiruvin, Her- 
shon, 73, 26. The rehearsing and the memorizing 
of a lesson was to be carried on aloud. "It is re- 
corded that Rabbi Eliezer had a disciple who also 
studied in silence, but that after three years he for- 
got all that he had learned," Tract Eiruvin, Her- 
shon 224, 29. "Rav says a man should never ab- 
sent himself from the lecture-hall, not even for one 
hour; for the above Mishna had been taught at col- 
lege for many years, but the reason of it had never 
been made plain till the hour when Rabbi Chanina 
ben Akavia came and explained it," Tract Shab- 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 83 

bath, Hershon, 9, 31. The amount of study ex- 
pected from a boy was so great that it endangered 
his health. "A boy at thirteen years of age is bound 
to observe the usual fasts in full, i. e. throughout the 
whole day. A girl is bound to do so when only 
twelve. Rashi gives this as the reason : A boy is 
supposed to be weaker than a girl on account of the 
enervating efEect of much study," Tract Kethuboth, 
Hershon, 162, 27. It was only after the eliforts of 
several years had resulted in total failure that a pu- 
pil was discouraged from continuing his studies. "A 
learner who, after five years, sees no profit in study- 
ing, will never see it. Rabbi Yossi says, after three 
years, as it is written (Daniel i, 4, 5), 'That they 
should be taught the literature and the language of 
the Chaldeans,' so educating them in three years," 
Tract Chullin, Hershon, 88, 35. 

The education of the children began at home, and 
the responsibility of the parents for the instruction 
of the children never ceased until they had reached 
manhood. In order to make the fulfillment of these 
obligations possible, it was required of children that 
they honor and obey their parents. "Where the chil- 
dren honor their parents, there God dwells, there He 
is honored," Peters, p. 64. "The honor and rever- 
ence due to parents are equal to the honor and rev- 
erence due to God," ibid. "Respect your parents as 
you respect Me, says God," p. 65. "A son must, if 



84 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

necessary, feed and support his parents," ibid. "A 
child owes his life to three: to God, to his father, and 
to his mother," ibid. "He who honors his father 
and mother enjoys the fruit in this life, and stores 
up a treasure for the future," p. 66. "While the 
son honors his parents, God holds it as if He were 
dwelling near the child, and were Himself receiv- 
ing honor," ibid. "Even if it happens that the son 
is a teacher, yet if the father is present, the son must 
rise before him in the presence of all his pupils," ibid. 
"A child must not contradict his father, and when he 
names him, he must use a term of respect, such as 
*my honored father,' " p. 67. "A child must love 
and honor his parents while they are living, and must 
love and respect them after they are dead ; and as 
they loved and honored God, he must love and honor 
God, and thus make his parents live again in his own 
good deeds," ibid. "If in after life the son prospers 
and is richer than his father, he must see that his 
prosperity is shared by his parents. He must not 
live in greater luxury than they; he must not allow 
them to suffer poverty while he enjoys wealth," ibid. 
In order to show to what extent one is bound to 
honor his father and mother, Rav Ulla told the story 
of the Gentile son who would not even wake his 
father, though he had the promise of great gain, 
should he do so, Tract Kiddushin, Hershon, 274, 13. 
The general duty of the parents toward their chil- 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 85 

dren consisted in this that they were responsible for 
their bringing up and had to make this their special 
care. "He who loves his wife as his own self, and 
he who educates his children in the right way, to 
him applies the divine promise, 'Thou shalt know that 
there is peace in thy tent ,' " Peters, p. 62. "The 
daughter is as the mother was>" p. 63. "What the 
child says out of doors, he has learnt in doors," ibid. 
"What a child speaks in the street, it has heard 
either from its father or from its mother," Tract 
Succah (VH, 92). "It is a woman alone through 
whom God's blessings are vouchsafed to a house. She 
teaches the children, speeds the husband to the house 
of worship and instruction, welcomes him when he 
returns, keeps the house godly and pure; and God's 
blessings rest upon all these things," Peters, p. 63. 
"The daughter's doings have been the mother's acts," 
p. 64. The responsibility of the father included not 
only the providing of instruction in schools, but the 
teaching of a trade to his sons. "It is a father's 
duty, not only to provide for his minor children, but 
also to take care of their instruction, and to teach 
his son a trade and whatever is necessary for his fu- 
ture welfare," Peters, p. 64. "He who teaches his 
son no trade is as if he taught him to steal," p. 86. 
"He who does not teach his son a handicraft trade 
neglects his parental duty," ibid. "Beautiful is the 
intellectual occupation, if combined with some prac- 



86 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

tical work," p. 87. "It is well to add a trade to your 
studies, you will then be free from sin," ibid. 

During the first years of the child's life, from its 
birth or, more exactly, from the time it was weaned 
(i Sam. I, 24, 2 Mace. 7, 28) till the completed 
fourth or fifth year, so long as it remained exclusively 
in the home, the parents had the special duty of be- 
ginning its instruction in the Scriptures. "As soon 
as he can talk, his father shall teach him the Torah 
and to read Shema. (What is meant by Torah? 
The verse of Deut. 33, 4: The law which 
Moses commanded us is the inheritance of the con- 
gregation of Jacob. What is meant by Shema? 
The first verse, Deut. 6, 4: Hear, O Israel!" The 
prayer Kaddish in its various forms, a liturgical 
prayer or doxology based upon Ezek. 38, 23, begin- 
ning, as a rule, with the words: "Magnified be Thy 
name, O Lord!" used especially upon very solemn 
occasions, was also taught in early youth and was 
thought to have great power, notably also for pre- 
serving from Gehenna, Tract Kitzur Sh'eh, Her- 
shon, 332, 10. It is related of Lois, the grandmoth- 
er, and Eunice, the mother of Timothy, that they in- 
structed him in the Holy Scriptures "from a child," 
2 Tim. 1,5. 3, 15. The expression apo brephous 
shows that the beginning of Timothy's religious in- 
struction had been made in his infancy. That even 
the very small children were accustomed to religious 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 87 

observances, appears from the following passage: 
"Children are not made to fast on the Day of Atone- 
ment, but when one or two years old, they are ac- 
customed to do It, so that they become habituated to 
obey the religious commandments," Tract Yomah 
(VI, 124). In their entire treatment of children 
parents were warned to be entirely impartial, for 
nothing so harms discipline as injustice. "A man 
should never show preference for one child above 
his other children," Tract Sabbath (i, 19). 

With the completion of the fourth or fifth year, 
according to the order of Joshua ben Gamla, the 
time came for the pupil to go to the first school, the 
infant school, the Talmudic timukot shel bet rab- 
ban, the 'babies of the teacher's house.' This school 
was later, together with the elementary school, called 
Heder. It is concerning the discipline in a school of 
this kind, probably, that we read: "Never tease a 
young pupil . . . their kingdom is behind their 
tears (i. e. when they become older they seek re- 
venge)," Tract Pesachim (V, 38). It has been 
thought that scribes had charge of the infant school. 
Information on the subject is wanting. In the later 
Heder, a lower Rabbi was teacher. Besides contin- 
uing their Scriptural studies (principally by rote), 
the young pupils were now taught the Hebrew alpha- 
bet. A very ingenious and interesting method of 
making the memorizing of the letters easy, by com- 



88 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

paring them with animals and other well-known ob- 
jects, is given in Tract Sabbath (ii, 208). The 
pupils also learned to count, which was quite easily 
taught, since the letters of the Hebrew alphabet are, 
at the same time, their numbers. 

With his entry into the elementary school, the 
Bet-ha-Sefer or 'House of the Book,' the boy was 
fully launched into his education. Boys from their 
sixth to their completed ninth year attended this 
school. It happened, however, especially in later 
years, that children up to the age of thirteen were en- 
rolled in the primary school. It seems that a fee 
was required of the boys, at least at some time: "To 
begin the study of the Torah required 200 zuz," 
Tract Baba Bathra (XIV, 323). If there was no 
building erected for the purpose, a dwelling was con- 
verted into a school-house, and the equipment was 
very meagre. There was an elevated place or plat- 
form for the teacher. The pupils, in early times, 
squatted before him on the floor or ground. Later 
on, at least in some of the schools (Hillel's), there 
were chairs for the pupils. "Let thy house be the 
meeting-place of the wise; sit gladly at their feet, 
and drink in their words with avidity. The house 
should be for the use of the scholars and their dis- 
ciples. (The pupil) shall not sit before thee on 
the bed, chair, or bench, but on the floor, and every 
word that thou utterest he shall receive with awe, 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 89 

terror, fear, and trembling," Tract Aboth (IX, 27 
ff.)' Twenty-five children was the highest number 
of pupils permitted to each teacher in a class for 
elementary instruction. There should be an assistant 
appointed, if there be forty in number; and if fifty 
there should be two competent teachers. Tract Baba 
Bathra,Hershon, 179, 77. There is a story told in this 
connection about a teacher's negligence and superfi- 
ciality which is very significant. The rabbi or 
city penman, who taught the boys, was designated as 
teacher. His Hebrew name was modeled after the 
Greek paidagogos. There were also artisan mas- 
ters for the instruction in the trades, upon which the 
Talmud insisted. Tract Sabbath (i, 22). The re- 
ligious subjects taken up in the Bet-ha-Sefer were 
the book of Leviticus, followed by all the books of 
the Bible. This is the order in which Aquiba and his 
son studied. In addition, there was the review of the 
alphabet and the alphabet backwards, reading and 
writing, grammar and composition. Some attention 
was also given to hygiene in the question of proper 
diet for school-boys, Tract Sabbath, 11, 318. The 
age of the boys in this school was considered the 
best for memory work. "He who learns as a lad, 
what is he like ? To ink written on fresh paper. And 
he who learns when old, what is he like? To ink 
written on blotted paper," Tract Aboth (IX, 67). 
The secondary school, Bet-ha-Midrash, the 'house 



90 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

of study' or 'house of learning,' was the next step in 
the boy's education. According to rabbinical tradi- 
tion, this school looks back upon a long term of ser- 
vice. The school of Samuel at Rama (i Sam. 19, 
19) was said to have been one of this type. Solo- 
mon built many, Hezekiah fostered them, the young 
men of the tribe of Issachar, with the aid of Zebulun, 
the merchant, attended them. At the time of Vespa- 
sian, Jewish writers assert, there were 480 schools, 
Bet-ha-Sefer together with Bet-ha-Midrash, in Jeru- 
salem. There were houses or rooms set apart for 
the purpose of teaching, called houses of learning, 
where the pupils sat before their masters, at the 
time of Hillel, on chairs, Tract Aboth (IX, 137). 
The average age of the pupils in this school was from 
ten to fourteen years. The rabbis, who had charge 
of the schools, were not to receive pay from the pu- 
pils, Tract Derech Eretz-Zuta (IX, 24). There 
was evidently a privilege as to choice of teachers, 
though the passage may refer to academies only. 
"When thou hast studied under one master, say not: 
'It is enough!' but go and study under another. 
. . . It is a duty to study under three masters. . . . 
Because thou canst not know which master's teach- 
ing will remain with thee, or perhaps all are good," 
Tract Aboth (IX, 20). The instruction consisted 
principally in the Mishna, Tract Kethuboth, Her- 
shon, 138, 19, which was memorized and explained 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 91 

because a boy of thirteen was to perform the com- 
mandments, Tract Aboth (IX, 133). The reason 
why there was such a thorough drill in religious in- 
struction with its applications is given : "Without 
the knowledge of religion there can be no true cul- 
ture, and without true culture there is no knowledge 
of religion. Where there is no wisdom, there is no 
fear of God, and without fear of God there is no 
wisdom," Tract Aboth (IX, 79). There was spec- 
ial zeal in the effort to get the lessons soon and not 
procrastinate. "Children in their rabbi's house 
(school) have arranged their paragraphs and read be- 
fore the lamplight," Tract Sabbath (i, 24). The 
course of study was an unintermittent one. "Why 
do disciples die while young? Not because they are 
adulterers, or robbers, but because they interrupt 
their studies, and occupy themselves with idle con- 
versation, and also because they do not begin again 
where they stopped," Tract Aboth (IX, 93 ii.). 
The discipline of the school was, according to rab- 
binical rules, administered with the greatest wisdom. 
"Mar Zutra the Pious, when a young scholar was 
delinquent and deserving to be reprimanded, first 
reprimanded himself and then the young scholar," 
Tract Moed Katan (VII, 33). 

It may be interesting, before continuing in the 
discussion of the college, to note that there was a 
similar institution called Bet Waad, 'meeting-place 



92 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

of scholars,' in the days of Jose ben Jaezer of Zereda 
in Maccabean times, where the hearers or disciples 
sat on the ground before their teachers. 

There was one high school of special renown in 
Jerusalem in the temple hall, where advanced pu- 
pils were admitted and discussions of the Law and 
the Mishna were held. That was the Bet-ha-Mid- 
rash-ha-gadol, which the boy Jesus visited, when he 
was twelve years old, Luke 2. 

The college was the meeting-place of advanced 
scholars, such as had finished the Torah and Mishna, 
as well as the elementary studies in other branches. 
For though the Jews made religious teaching the 
basis of all instruction, yet they did not by any means 
confine their school system to religious instruction. 
"It is necessary to have a knowledge of the world, 
beside a knowledge of the Holy Law," Peters, p. 
164. And their aim was certainly a splendid one. 
"The ultimate end of all knowledge and wisdom is 
man's inner purification and the performance of 
good and noble deeds," p. 163. Though the various 
schools were not so sharply defined as to age as in 
our day, the rule was that the pupils of the college 
were from fifteen to eighteen or twenty years old. 
There was a college in every larger city, apparently, 
because the Talmud speaks of them quite casually. 
Tract Aboth (IX, 122). The term academy seems 
to have been confined to the schools of the great 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 93 

educational centers of Nehardea, Sura, and Pumbe- 
dita, in Babylonia, and Jerusalem, Jamnia, and Ti- 
berias, in Palestine. In many of the colleges the stu- 
dents were evidently crowded for room, because it 
is stated that four and even six men sat to one 
(square?) ell. Tract Erubin (III, 119). The col- 
leges seem to have been conducted to some extent on 
the boarding-school plan. "The disciples of the col- 
lege ate in the inns of the valley and passed the 
night at the college," Tract Erubin (III, 171). 
There was a hostelry (inn) started in the 
neighborhood of the college of Eliezer, Tract 
Aboth (IX, 30 ff.). In the college, a teach- 
er was not limited to twenty-five pupils as in the ele- 
mentary grades, because Hillel the First had eighty 
disciples. Tract Aboth (IX, 54). Moreover, "in 
the college the most scholarly has preference to age," 
Tract Baba Bathra (XIV, 236). 

As to the subjects taught, the religious subjects of 
course ranked first. The passages praising the study 
of the Law are almost innumerable. A few of the 
shorter ones are: "There is no love such as the love 
of the Torah. The words of the Torah are as dif- 
ficult to acquire as silken garments," Tract Aboth 
(IX, 97). "Turn it and turn it again, etc.," Tract 
Aboth (IX, 133 1?.). "Study Law in old age as 
well as in youth, in years of famine as well as in 
years of plenty," Tract Aboth (IX, 20). The sub- 



94 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

jects taught are enumerated in Tract Succah (VII, 
37 f. ) as follows: "Bible, Mishna, Gemara, Halak- 
hoth, Agadoth, observations of the Bible, observa- 
tions of the scribes, lenient ones and vigorous ones, 
the analogies of expression, equinoxes, geometries, the 
language of the angels and the language of the evil 
spirits, and the language of the trees, the fables, the 
great things, the heavenly chariots and the small 
things, the discussion of Abayi and Rabha," It does 
not occasion surprise therefore that we hear of lec- 
tures on profane subjects by a noted teacher. Tract 
Pesachim (V, 38). And since the Torah was taught 
and reviewed in the college, not merely by memoriz- 
ing, but by discussion and argumentation as well, 
there was a training in logic and rhetoric which was 
of great value. There must also have been instruc- 
tion in medicine given, at least to some extent, be- 
cause physicians are so often spoken of and various 
remedies discussed. It is true, of course, that a 
great many remedies were those of superstitition and 
witchcraft. 

The training at the college was a very strict one, 
and a thorough knowledge was insisted upon. "Schol- 
ars engaged in studying Law must stop for the read- 
ing of Shema, but they need not stop for prayer," 
Tract Sabbath (I, 20). "Man should not absent 
himself from the house of learning, even for one 
hour. Man should never absent himself from the 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 95 

house of learning, even when at the point of death," 
Tract Sabbath (I, i6i). The explanation was thor- 
ough, Tract Erubin (III, 126 fE.). "One shall not 
willfully sleep till past the hour of reading the 
Shema, for by doing so he neglects the Law. . . . 
One should not make a practice of talking to his 
wife, sons, or daughters, when he is studying at 
home, for by doing so he neglects the Torah. . . . 
One should not lounge with idlers in the market, 
lest he neglect the Torah," Tract Aboth (IX, 80, 
80- "One who walks by the way and learns, and 
breaks off his studying and says, How beautiful is 
this tree! and. How fine this furrowed field! is en- 
dangering his own life," Tract Aboth (IX, 76). 
"Never in my life came a man to the house of learn- 
ing before me, and I never slept in the house of 
learning a long or a short time ; I never left a man 
in the house of learning when I went away," is the 
boast of a great rabbi. Tract Succah (VII, 37). 

In regard to the students and their abilities, we 
find some keen observations. "There are four kinds 
of visitors in the house of learning: he that goes and 
does not practice (i. e. he accepts the lessons with- 
out any examination or study of them), the reward 
of going only remains with him ; he that practices 
(i. e. he that studies at home) and does not go, the 
reward of practice remains with him ; he that does 
both is pious; he that enrolls among the college vis- 



96 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 

itors, but neither goes not practices, is wicked," 
Tract Aboth (IX, 131 f.). "Gamaliel the Elder 
compares disciples to the following four kinds of 
fish: an unclean, a clean fish, a fish found in the Jor- 
dan, and one found in the Ocean. By an unclean fish 
is meant a disciple of poor intellect, who, notwith- 
standing his study of Scripture, Mishna, Halakhoth, 
and Agadoth, still remains poor-minded. By a clean 
fish is meant a disciple of rich intellect, who studies 
Scripture, Mishna, Halakhoth, and Agadoth, and 
develops his mind. By the fish from the Jordan is 
meant a scholar who has studied all the mentioned 
subjects, but has not acquired the faculty of an- 
swering questions put to him. And by a fish found 
in the Ocean is meant a scholar who studied all the 
above subjects and has the ability of answering the 
questions put to him," Tract Aboth (IX, 138 ff.). 

The subjects, then, in which a Jewish boy, could 
expect instruction, were: A systematic, thorough in- 
struction in Religion, Reading, Writing, Grammar, 
Rhetoric, Logic; a less systematic, perhaps some- 
what insufficient instruction in Philosophy, Geogra- 
phy, History, Geometry, Physiology and Hygiene, 
Astronomy, Zoology, Botany, Music, Medicine. 
The order of subjects taught in the twelfth century 
was as follows: Reading, Writing, Torah, Mishna, 
Hebrew Grammar, Poetry, Talmud, Philosophy of 
Religion, Logic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Optics, As- 



THE ROMAN PERIOD 97 

tronomy, Music, Mechanics, Medicine, Metaphysics. 
This h'st is given only for the sake of comparison. 

In conclusion, it seems but fair and just to say 
that the comparatively high development of the 
Jewish educational system has done much to give 
the race the intellectual prominence which it now 
enjoys. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The Hexaglot Bible. 

Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Antiquities of the 
Jews, Against Apion. 

Rodkinson's Babylonian Talmud. 

Hastings Bible Dictionary. 

Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowl- 
edge. 

Jewish Encyclopedia. 

Catholic Encyclopedia. 

Matthew Henry, Commentary. 

Meyer, Commentary ; Lange, Commentary. 

Peters, Madison C, Wit and Wisdom of the 
Talmud. 

Hershon, A Talmudic Miscellany. 

Kent, History of the Jewish People. 

Day, Social Life of the Hebrews. 

Delitzsch, Jewish Artisan Life in the Time of 
Jesus. 

Leipziger, Education of the Jews. 

Schenk, The Sociology of the Bible. 

Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile. 

Kent, Israel's Historical and Biographical Nar- 
ratives. 

Baehr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus. 

Goodwin, Moses et Aaron seu Civiles et Eccle- 
siastici Ritus. 

98 



